NJIFFY AMRIT

2011-07-01T23:46:00.000-07:00

PY-701 PHARMACEUTICS VIII
(PHARMACEUTICAL TECHNOLOGY I)
Formulation considerations, technology involved, equipment (machine) employed, problems to be encountered, packaging evaluation and CMP (India, WHO & USFDA) requirements of the following dosage
forms.
1. Solid Dosage Forms- Tablets, Tablet coatings and Capsules.
2. Liquid Dosage Forms- Liquid Orals, Dry Syrups.
3. Semisolid Dosage Forms- ointments, Creams, Suppositories, Gels.
4. Sterile Dosage Forms- Parenteral ( Small Volume Parenterals & Large Volume Parenterals ) and ophthalmic Preparations.
5. Pharmaceutical Aerosols
Blood Products and Plasma Substitutes:
Collection, processing and storage of whole human blood, concentrated human RBC, dried human plasma, human normal immunoglobulin, plasma substitutes, ideal requirements, PVP, Dextran, etc. for control of blood pressure,
Surgical products:
Definition, surgical cotton, surgical gauzes, bandages, adhesive tapes, absorbable and non absorbable sutures, ligatures and catguts, Medical prosthetics and organ replacement materials.
Books Recommended
1. Rawlins, E.A., Text Book Of Pharmaceutics, Bailliere Tindall.
2. Lachman, L. , Liberman, H.A. and Kanig, J.L., The Theory and Practice of Industrial Pharmacy,
Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.
3. Liberman, H.A., lachman, L. and Ker Inc. New York.
4. Pharmacopoeia Of India, Ministry of Health and family Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
5. Avis, K.E., Lachman, L. and Liberman, H.A., Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms-Parenteral
Medication Vol.1-2, Marcel Decker Inc., New York.
6. Banker G.S. and Rhode C.T., Modern Pharmaceutics, Marcell Decker Inc., New York.
7. Bean, H.S., Beckett, A.H. and Carless, A.H., Advances in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol.1-4,
Academic Press, London.

PY-701:Pharmaceutics-VIII Pharmaceutical Technology –I
List of Practicals
1. Prepare and evaluate Paracetamol Compressed Tablets.
2. Prepare and evaluate Effervescent Tablets of Aspirin.
3. Prepare and evaluate Dispersible tablets of Diclofenac Sodium.
4. Perform the Sugar Coating on the given sample of Tablets.
5. Perform the Film Coating on the given sample of Tablets.
6. Perform the Enteric Coating coating on the given sample of Tablets.
7. Prepare and evaluate Tetracycline HCL Capsules.
8. Prepare and evaluate Antacid Suspension.
9. Prepare and evaluate B-Complex Syrup.
10. Prepare and evaluate Amoxicillin Dry Syrup.
11. Prepare and evaluate Castor Oil Emulsion.
12. Prepare and evaluate Diclofenac Sodium Suppositories.
13. Prepare and evaluate Vaporizing Ointment.
14. Prepare and evaluate Non-Staining Iodine Ointment containing Methyl Salicylate.
15. Prepare and evaluate Antiseptic Cream.
16. Prepare and evaluate Diclofenac Gel.
17. Prepare and evaluate Ciprofloxacin Eye Drop.
18. Prepare and evaluate Water for Injection.
19. Prepare and evaluate Oxytetracycline Injection.
20. Perform the Sability Studies of given sample of Paracetamol Tablets.
21. Prepare and evaluate an aqueous injection of a poorly water – soluble drug using hydrotropic solubilization technique.
PY702 : Pharmaceutics-X
(Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics)
Introduction to biopharmaceutics and pharmacokinetics development and their role in drug formulation.
Biopharmaceutics
Definition , passage of drugs across biological barrier , Physiochemical , Biological and Pharmacaceutical
factors influencing biopharmaceutical performance of drugs.
1. Gastrointestinal absorption of drugs: Passage of drugs across biological membranes, nature of
biological membranes, gastrointestinal absorption mechanisms.
2. Factors affecting drug absorption : Physiological factors, dietary factors,physiochemical factors, pH
partition hypothesis, dosage form factors.
3. Methods of studying gastrointestinal absorption: In vitro and in vivo methods.
4. Drug disposition: Distribution in blood, cellular distribution, plasma protein binding, tissue protein
binding.
Drug Excretion: Routes of drug excretion, renal excretion of drugs, factors affecting renal excretion, biliary and salivary excretion of drugs.
Drug biotransformation: Pathways of drug metabolism, drug metabolizing enzymes, factors affecting drug metabolism and drug response, inhibition and stimulation of drug metabolism.
Pharmacokinetics
Absorbtion, distribution metabolism and excretion of drugs, fluid compartment and circulatory system,
protein binding, significance of plasma drug concentration measurement.
Compartment Models
Model selection criteria, alaika information criterian, one – compartment and two compartment models, Wagner- Nelson and loo Riegelman methods for estimation of absorption constants. Curve fittings,regression procedure and area under blood level curves.
Clinical Pharmacokinetics
Urinary excretions, computation of pharmacokinetic parameters from urine data, haepetic clearance,biliary
excretion,excretion ratio,dosage regimen adjustment in patients with and without renal failure, pharmacokinetic drug interaction and their significance in combination therapy.
Biovailability and Bioequivalance
Biovailability and Bio-equivalance, Federal requirements, Methods of determination of bioavailability using blood level and urinary excretion data, design and evaluations, bioavailability assessment.
Books recommended
1. Gibaldi, M.and Perrier d, Pharmacokinetics, 4th edn. Pharma mid press, Hydrabad
2. Notari, R.E., Biopharmaceutics and pharmacokinetics-An Introduction, marcel Decker New York.
3. Jaiswal , Brahmankar Biopharmaquality and pharmacokinetics.
4. Leepeter I.D., Pharmacokinetic analysis
5. Niazi Textbook of Biopharmacokinetics and clinical pharmacokinetics.
6. Venkaateshwaru v , Biopharmaceutics and pharmacokinetics, phared puss, Hydrabad.
7. Wagner-pharmacokinetics for the pharmastudies.
8. Dhachinamoorthi D: Biopharmaceutics and pharmacokinetics : A practical mannd
9. Shargel : pharmacokinetics & Biopharmacokinetics & Biopharmaceutics

PY 702 : Pharmaceutics – X
(Biopharmaceutics & pharmacokinetics ) practicals
List of Practicals
1. Determine the percentage protein binding of the given drug.
2. Determine oral bioavailability of the given drug/formulation by urinary excretion method using animal
model.
3. Perform bioequivalence study of two different brands of the marketed tablets of the given drug using
animal model.
4. Determine the rate of in-vitro absorption of the given drug using everted intestinal sack.
5. Determine the effect of different pH condition on solubility of a weekly acidic or basic drug and study PH partition hypothesis.
6. Establish IVIVC for the given sample of drug.
7. Calculate elimination rate constant and elimination half life of given excretion data by sigma minus method.
8. Calculate elimination rate constant and elimination half life of the given drug data administered by i.v. bolus injection represented by one compartment model.
9. Calculate various pharmacokinetic parameters from the given data generated after single extra
vascular administration of drug represented by one compartment model.
10. Calculate various pharmacokinetic parameters from the given data obtained by using two compartment open model.

PY703 :PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY VIII
(MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY-III)
The synthesis of the selected drugs, mode of action, classification, uses, SAR of the following category of drugs:
A) Steroids and related drugs. Steroidal nomenclature and stereochemistry, androgen and anabolic agents, estrogens and progestational agents adrenocorticoids.
B) Diuretics and cardiovascular drugs.
C) Chemotherapeutic Agents-: Anti metabolites(Including Sulpha durgs) Anti viral & Anti HIV, Antineoplastic, Anti malarials, Anti tuberarlar, Anti biatics, Immuno- suppresive
D) Amino acids, Protiens and peptide hormones.
E) Thyroid and Antithyroid Drugs.
F) Insulin and Oral hypoglycemic agents.
G) Drugs affecting uterine motility, oxytocins (including prostoglandins and Ergot alkaloids).
Books Recommended:
1. Foye, W.C., Principles of Medicinal Chemistry, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.
2. Wolff , M.E. Ed., Burger’s Medicinal Chemistry, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
3. Hansch, C., Comprehensive Medicinal Chemistry, Pergarnon Press, Oxford
4. Delagado, J.N. and Remers, W.A.R, Wilson and Giswold’s Text Book of Organic,Medicianl and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, J.Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.
5. Nogrady, T., Medicinal Chemistry-A Biochemical Approach, Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford.
6. Kar, A., Medicinal Chemistry, Willey Eastern Ltd., New Delhi.
7. Patrick, G., An Introduction to Medicinal Chemistry, Scientific Distributors, Mumbai.
8. Malone, Dyson and Purey, May’s Chemistry of Synthetic Drugs.
9. Parimoo, P., Text Book of Medicinal Chemistry, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
10. Thomas, G., Introduction to medicinal Chemistry, CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi.
11. Sten lake B.J. medicinal and pharm. Chemistry pharma mid press, Hyderabad
PY704 :Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Theory
Historical Development :Immunology and Immunological Preparations :
Principles, Antigens and antibodies, Antigen-antibody reactions and their applications,Immune system.Cellular humoral immunity, Immunological tolerance, Hypersensitibity,
Immunological and diagnostic preparations: Methods of their preparation, standardization and
storage.
Enzyme Immobilization –
Techniques of Immobilization of enzymes, Kinetics and factors affecting enzymes kinetics,
Enzymes based sensors, Study of enzymes such as Hyaluronidase, Penicillinase, Strepto- Kinase, Amylases etc. Immobilization of bacteria and plant cells, Applications of Immobilization.
Genetic Recombination :
Transformation, Conjugation, Transduction, Protoplast fusion, Gene cloning and their applications, Monoclonal antibodies and hybridoma technology, Recombinant DNA technology: Concepts, Methodology and Pharmaceutical applications. Study of drugs produced by biotechnology such as Activase, Humulin, Humatrope, Introne A, Monoclate,
Orthoclone OKT3, Referon-A, Recombivax HB etc.Drug delivery systems in Gene therapy.
Microbiological Transformation –
Intoduction, Types of reactions mediated by micro organisms. Design of biotransformation
processes, Selection of organism, Biotransformation processes and its improvements with special refrence to steroids.
Industrial Biotechnology –
Historical development, Fermenter and its design, Control of different parameters in
fermentation process, Isolation of mutants, Use of mutagenic agents, Factors in influencing
rate of mutation. Design of fermentation process, Fermentative, production of Alcohol, Acetic
acid, Penicillin, Streptomycin, Riboflavin, Vitamin B12.
B.Pharm. Semester- VII
PY 704 Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Practical
List of Practicals
1. Detect the presence of the amylase enzyme in saliva.
2. Isolate the DNA from cauliflower.
3. Perform VDRL test for the given sample of blood.
4. Isolate the phospholipid from egg yolk .
5. Perform WIDAL test for the given sample of blood.
6. Perform DOT ELISA test of the given sample of blood.
7. Isolate the total RNA from yeast tablet.
8. Immobilize the given enzyme by adsorption method using calcium alginate beads.
9. Perform titre value of antibody in given blood sample.

2011-01-01T08:35:00.001-08:00

Syllabus for GPAT-2010 Examination

2010-08-22T21:32:00.000-07:00

Syllabus for GPAT-2010 Examination

Natural Products :
Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry - Chemistry, tests, isolation, characterization and estimation of phytopharmaceuticals belonging to the group of Alkaloids, Glycosides, Terpenoids, Ster oids, Bioflavanoids, Purines, Guggul lipids. Pharmacognosy of crude drugs that contain the above constituents. Standardization of raw materials and herbal products. WHO guidelines. Quantitative microscopy including modern techniques used for evaluation. Biotechnological principles and techniques for plant development, Tissue culture.
Pharmacology :
General pharmacological principles including Toxicology. Drug interaction. Pharmacology of drugs acting on Central nervous system, Cardiovascular system, Autonomic nervous system, Gastro intestinal system and Respiratory system. Pharmacology of Autocoids, Hormones, Hormone antagonists, chemotherapeutic agents including anticancer drugs. Bioassays, Immuno Pharmacology. Drugs acting on the blood & blood forming organs. Drugs acting on the renal system.
Medicinal Chemistry :
Structure, nomenclature, classification, synthesis, SAR and metabolism of the following category of drugs, which are official in Indian Pharmacopoeia and British Pharmacopoeia. Introduction to drug design. Stereochemistry of drug molecules. Hypnotics and Sedatives, Analgesics, NSAIDS, Neuroleptics, Antidepressants, Anxiolytics, Anticonvulsants, Antihistaminics, Local Anaesthetics, Cardio Vascular drugs - Antianginal agents Vasodilators, Adrenergic & Cholinergic drugs, Cardiotonic agents, Diuretics, Anti-hypertensive drugs, Hypoglycemic agents, Antilipedmic agents, Coagulants, Anticoagulants, Antiplatelet agents. Chemotherapeutic agents - Antibiotics, Antibacterials, Sulphadrugs. Antiprotozoal drugs, Antiviral, Antitubercular, Antimalarial, Anticancer, Antiamoebic drugs. Diagnostic agents. Preparation and storage and uses of official Radiopharmaceuticals, Vitamins and Hormones. Eicosanoids and their application.
Pharmaceutics :
Development, manufacturing standards Q.C. limits, labeling, as per the pharmacopoeial requirements. Storage of different dosage forms and new drug delivery systems. Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics and their importance in formulation. Formulation and preparation of cosmetics - lipstick, shampoo, creams, nail preparations and dentifrices. Pharmaceutical calculations.
Pharmaceutical Jurisprudence :
Drugs and cosmetics Act and rules with respect to manufacture, sales and storage. Pharmacy Act. Pharmaceutical ethics.
Pharmaceutical Analysis :
Principles, instrumentation and applications of the following: Absorption spectroscopy (UV, visible & IR). Fluorimetry, Flame photometry, Potentiometry. Conductometry and Polarography. Pharmacopoeial assays. Principles of NMR, ESR, Mass spectroscopy. X-ray diffraction analysis and different chromatographic methods.
Biochemistry :
Biochemical role of hormones, Vitamins, Enzymes, Nucleic acids, Bioenergetics. General principles of immunology. Immunological. Metabolism of carbohydrate, lipids, proteins. Methods to determine, kidney & liver function. Lipid profiles.
Microbiology :
Principles and methods of microbiological assays of the Pharmacopoeia. Methods of preparation of official sera and vaccines. Serological and diagnostics tests. Applications of microorganisms in Bio Conversions and in Pharmaceutical industry.

Clinical Pharmacy :
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring Dosage regimen in Pregnancy and Lactation, Pediatrics and Geriatrics. Renal and hepatic impairment. Drug - Drug interactions and Drug - food interactions, Adverse Drug reactions. Medication History, interview and Patient counseling.

People’s Institute of Pharmacy & Research Centre

2010-07-06T08:58:00.000-07:00

People’s Institute of Pharmacy & Research Centre
Bhanpur, By-Pass road,
Bhopal-462037 (M.P.)

The aim of the People’s Institute of Pharmacy & Research Centre is committed to quality of education. Demand for well-qualified Pharmacy manpower is increasing day by day with the proliferation of many new companies and a greater demand for competent candidates in the Pharmaceutical sector is generated. Job opportunities for Pharmacy professionals have increased in India and abroad. Keeping this in view, the members of SJPN (Charitable Trust) have proposed to start People’s Institute of Pharmacy & Research Centre (PIP&RC) at Bhanpur, Bhopal, approx. 5.5 km from the Railway Station as well as Airport.

2010-07-06T08:51:00.000-07:00

ABHINAMDAN

Amrit Singh

2010-07-06T08:48:00.000-07:00

Complexometric

These titrations are based on complexation reactions.
Most often used reagent is EDTA - EthyleneDiamineTetraAcetic acid. There are also other similar chelating agents (EGTA, CDTA and so on) used. In some of other methods Ag+ is used as a titrant for determining cyanides and Hg2+ as a titrant in Cl- determination.
Changing property of the solution is usually the concentration of the complexed substance, although in some cases it can be much more convenient to express results in terms of titrant concentration. As its concentration changes by many orders of magnitude, and is almost always smaller than 1, we use negative logarithmic scale, similar to that used in pH definition.
In the case of determination of metals detection of the endpoint is mainly based on substances that change color when creating complexes with determined metals. One of these indicators is eriochrome black T, substance that in pH between 7 and 11 is blue when free, and black when forms a complex with metal, other examples are pyrocatechin violet and murexide. It is important that formation constant for these complexes is low enough, so that titrant reacts with complexed ions first.

Iodometry

2010-07-06T08:43:00.000-07:00

Iodometry

Iodometry is one of the most important redox titration methods. Iodine reacts directly, fast and quantitively with many organic and inorganic substances. Thanks to its relatively low, pH independent redox potential, and reversibility of the iodine/iodide reaction, iodometry can be used both to determine amount of reducing agents (by direct titration with iodine) and of oxidizing agents (by titration of iodine with thiosulfate). In all cases the same simple and reliable method of end point detection, based on blue starch complex, can be used.
Reversible iodine/iodide reaction mentioned above is
2I- ↔ I2 + 2e-
and obviously whether it should be treated as oxidation with iodine or reduction with iodides depends on the other redox system involved.
Second important reaction used excesivelly in iodometry is reduction of iodine with thiosulfate:
2S2O32- + I2 → S4O62- + 2I-
In the case of both reactions it is better to avoid low pH. Thiosulfate is unstable in the presence of acids, and iodides in low pH can be oxidized by air oxygen to iodine. Both processes can be source of titration errors.
Iodine is very weakly soluble in the water, and can be easily lost from the solution due to its volatility. However, in the presence of excess iodides iodine creates I3- ions. This lowers free iodine concentration and such solutions are stable enough to be used in lab practice. Still, we should remember that their shelf life is relatively short (they should be kept tightly closed in dark brown bottles, and standardized every few weeks). Iodine solutions are prepared dissolving elemental iodine directly in the iodides solution. Elemental iodine can be prepared very pure through sublimation, but because of its high volatility it is difficult to weight. Thus use of iodine as a standard substance, although possible, is not easy nor recommended. Iodine solutions can be easily normalized against arsenic (III) oxide (As2O3) or sodium thiosulfate solution.
It is also possible to prepare iodine solutions mixing potassium iodide with potassium iodate in the presence of strong acid:
5I- + IO3- + 6H+ → 3I2 + 3H2O
Potassium iodate is a primary substance, so solution prepared this way can have exactly known concentration. However, this approach is not cost effective and in lab practice it is much better to use iodate as a primary substance to standardize thiosulfate, and then standardize iodine solution against thiosulfate.

end point detection with starch

Iodine in water solutions is usually colored strong enough so that its presence can be detected visually. However, close to the end point, when the iodine concentration is very low, its yellowish color is very pale and can be easily overlooked. Thus for the end point detection starch solutions are used.
Iodine gets adsorbed on the starch molecule surface and product of adsortion has strong, blue color. Exact mechanism behind adsorption and color change is not known, see for example this explanation of starch as an indicator usage.
In the presence of small amounts of iodine adsorption and desorption are fast and reversible. However, when the concentration of iodine is high, it gets bonded with starch relatively strong, and desorption becomes slow, which makes detection of the end point relatively difficult. Luckily high concentrations of iodine are easily visible, so if we are using thiosulfate to titrate solution that initially contains high iodine concentration, we can titrate till the solution gets pale and add starch close to the end point. In the case of titration with iodine solution we can add starch at the very beginning, as high iodine concentrations are not possible before we are long past the end point.
At the elevated temperatures adsorption of the iodine on the starch surface decreases, so titrations should be done in the cold.
Finally, it is worth of noting that starch solutions, containing natural carbohydrate, have to be either prepared fresh, or conserved with antibacterial agent like mercuric iodide HgI2.

Solutions used in iodometric titrations

Two most important solutions used in iodometric titrations are solution of iodine and solution of sodium thiosulfate. Both substances can be easily obtained in a pure form, but their other characteristics (volatility, hard to control amount of water of crystallization) make them difficult to use as a primary standards.
It is also worth of mentioning that both solutions are not quite stable and they can not be stored for a prolonged period of time. Iodine can be lost from the solution due to its volatility, while thiosulfate slowly decomposes giving off elemental sulfur. The latter process is easily visible, as thiosulfate solutions become slightly cloudy with time.
Iodine solution
It is not difficult to prepare high purity iodine through sublimation, but - due to its volatility - iodine is difficult to weight accurately, as it tends to run away. To minimize losses it should be weight in closed weighing bottle. Iodine should be kept in a closed bottles also because it is highly corrosive and it vapor can damage delicate mechanism of analytical balance.
Commonly used solutions are 0.05M (0.1 normal).
To find out amounts of substances required to prepare the solution for a needed volume use ChemBuddy concentration calculator. Download the iodine solution preparation file. Open it with the free trial version of the concentration calculator. After opening the file enter solution volume and click on the Show recipe button. Read amounts of the substances, but don't follow the general directions. It is better to use as small initial volume of the solution as possible, that is, dissolve potassium iodide in about 1/100th of the final volume of water, before adding iodine.
To minimalize losses it is important to transfer iodine to the solution as fast as possible, or even to weight a 1% excess. Solution should be kept in dark glass bottle with grinded glass stopper and standardized every few weeks or before use.
Sodium thiosulfate solution
Sodium thiosulafte can be realtively easily obtained in a pure form, but it is quite difficult to obtain samples with known amount of water of crystallization, as the exact composition of the solid is very temperature and humidity dependent. Thus solution has to be standardized against potassium iodate KIO3 or potassium dichromate.
Commonly used solutions are 0.1M (0.1 normal).
To prepare the recipe for a needed volume of the solution use ChemBuddy concentration calculator. Download the sodium thiosulfate solution preparation file. Open it with the free trial version of the concentration calculator. After opening the file enter solution volume and click on the Show recipe button.
Small amount of carbonate added helps keep solution pH above 7, which slows down thiosulfate decomposition. Some sources also call for addition of 0.5 mL chloform per liter of the solution, to stop possible growth of bacteria that can speed up decomposition process.
Starch solution
Starch solution is used for end point detection in iodometric titration.
To prepare starch indicator solution, add 1 gram of starch (either corn or potato) into 10 mL of distilled water, shake well, and pour into 100 mL of boiling, distilled water. Stir thoroughly and boil for a 1 minute. Leave to cool down. If the precipitate forms, decant the supernatant and use as the indicator solution. To make solution long lasting add a pinch of mercury iodide or salicylic acid, otherwise it can spoil after a few days.
2% sodium bicarbonate
This solution is used for neutralization of sodium arsenite, before it is titrated with iodine solution during iodine solution standardization.

0.05M iodine standardization against arsenic trioxide
Chemical characteristics of the arsenic trioxide As2O3 make it a good candidate for a standard substance in many potentiometric methods, however, because of its toxicity it is used less and less frequently.
Arsenic oxide is dissolved in sodium hydroxide, producing sodium arsenite, which is a good reducing agent. In iodometry it is quantitatively oxidized by iodine to arsenate:
Na3AsO3 + I2 + H2O → Na3AsO4 + 2I- + 2H+
Direction of this reaction depends on pH - in acidic solutions As(V) is able to oxidize iodides to iodine. To guarantee correct pH of the solution we will add solution of sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3.
Interestingly, when using As2O3 as a standard substance in other types of redox titrations, we often add small amount of iodide or iodate to speed up the reaction. For obvious reasons in the case of iodometric titration we don't have to.
Procedure to follow:
Weight exactly about 0.15-0.20g of dry arsenic trioxide and transfer it to Erlenmayer flask.
Add 10 mL of 1M sodium hydroxide solution and dissolve solid.
Add a drop of phenolphthalein solution.
Neutralize with 0.5M sulfuric acid, adding several drops of excess acid after solution loses its color.
Add slowly (to not cause the solution to foam up) 50 mL of 2% NaHCO3 solution.
Add 5 mL of the starch solution.
Titrate swirling the flask, until a blue color persists for 20 seconds.
To calculate iodine solution concentration use EBAS - stoichiometry calculator. Download iodine standardization against arsenic trioxide reaction file, open it with the free trial version of the stoichiometry calculator.
Note, that to be consistent with the use of arsenic trioxide and its molar mass, reaction equation is not the one shown above, but
As2O3 + 2I2 + 5H2O → 2AsO43- + 4I- + 10H+
These are equivalent. Enter arsenic troxide mass in the upper (input) frame in the mass edit field above As2O3 formula. Click n=CV button below iodine in the output frame, enter volume of the solution used, read solution concentration

Potentiometric titrations

2010-07-06T08:38:00.000-07:00

Potentiometric titrations

These titrations are based on redox reactions.
There are many redox reagents used in redox titrations. To list a few - potassium permanganate is used for determination of Fe2+, H2O2 and oxalic acid. Potassium dichromate for determination of Fe2+ and Cu in CuCl. Bromate is used for tin and phenol, iodides (titrated with sodium thiosulfate) for H2O2 and Cu2+. Cerium (IV) can be used to determine ferrocyanides and nitrites. There are also many other methods.
Changing property of the solution is its redox potential.
Commonly used indicators are substances that can exist in two forms - oxidized and reduced - that differ in color. Potential at which the substance changes color must be such that the change occurs close to the equivalence point. Examples of such substances are ferroin, diphenylamine or nile blue. Sometimes indicators that are oxidized irreversibly are used. However, in most popular redox titrations there is no need for a special indicator - permanganate has strong color by itself, iodine gives strong color when combined with starch, so their presence or disappearance can be easily detected without additional indicators.

End point detection

Many things that have been told about use of indicators in acid-base titration hold also for potentiometric titrations. The higher the concentration of the titrated substance and the titrant, the longer the steep part of the titration curve and the easier the redox indicator selection. In the case of one color indicators, potential at which indicator color starts to be visible depends on the indicator concentration. Depending on the situation we should either titrate to the full change of color or to the first visible change of color - and so on.
However, there are also important differences. The most obvious one is - while the general idea that observed color depends on the ratio of concentrations of both reduced and oxidized forms still holds, ratio of concentrations is not pH dependent, but redox potential dependent. We can easily calculate ratio of the concentrations of both forms using Nernst equation:

Let's assume - as we did in the case of pH indicators - that for the complete color change we have to move from 10:1 to 1:10 concentration ratio. That means we have to move from the potential

at 25 °C (more precisely it should be 118.2 mV, but as we started with an approximate rule 10:1 to 1:10, such accuracy is not necessary). This is a useful rule of thumb - 120 mV will be enough always. For many indicators reaction requires 2 electrons, so 60 mV change is enough for the observable color change.
Table below contains some of the popular redox indicators. Note, that reduced forms of many indicators are colorless - that means, that indicator concentration plays important role. Also note, that many of these substances are weak acids/bases, thus formal potentials of their reactions can depend on the solution pH. Some of these substances are even used as pH indicators, so their color depends both on the pH and redox potential of the system, which makes selecting them even more complicated.

Interestingly, in the case of three popular potentiometric titrations we usually don't use redox indicators, but specific indicators, that work only in the case of these methods.
In the case of permanganometry there is no need for indicator - small excess of permanganate is immediately visible, as the permanganate itself has a very strong color. As we need some excess of the titrant, it makes sense to start with a blank test, to check what volume of excess titrant has to be added before the color change can be spotted.
In the case of iodometric titration, we use starch. Free iodine adsorbs at the starch surface, changing its color to blue. Depending on the titration type (and titrant) starch will either allow determination of the first traces of excess iodine, or determination of the moment when last traces of iodine disappear. In the latter case it is important to add starch close to the endpoint, as product of the iodine-starch reaction created when iodine concentration is high is relatively stable. Iodine itself is colored and its solutions are yellow, but intensity of the color is usually too low to be useful for endpoint detection.
In the case of bromine titration we can use methyl orange as an indicator - once the excess free bromine appears in the solution, it will oxidize the indicator and solution turns colorless. This is an example of application of irreversible redox indicator.
If you want to select an indicator for your method, you can try approach similar to that described in the acid-base titration end point detection section - calculate redox potential of your system for 99.9% and 100.1% titration and choose an indicator that changes color between these values.

Titration

2010-07-06T08:33:00.000-07:00

Titration

Titration is a laboratory method of quantitative analysis used to determine unknown concentration of known substance.
Analysis is performed using burette - kind of laboratory glass made for exact measurement of volume of solution used.
The most popular titrimetric experiment is a determination of amount of acid.
Imagine you have a solution of a sulfuric acid of unknown concentration.
Pour exactly measured volume of sulfuric acid (VH2SO4) into a beaker and add few drops of alcoholic phenolphtalein solution. Solution will be colorless, as phenolphtalein becomes pink only in basic solutions (color becomes visible at pH above 8.2).
Now use burette to slowly add NaOH solution (called titrant) of known molar concentration CNaOH. pH slowly goes up. Once all sulfuric acid becomes neutralized one excess drop of strong base is enough to rapidly change pH of the solution and change its color to pink.

(Color change of phenolphthalein during titration - on the left, colorless solution before end point, on the right - pink solution after end point. )
When the color of the solution changes you know that you have neutralized all acid present - you have reached a titration end point. Using burette scale you may read volume of the titrant used (VNaOH).
We know that one mole of H2SO4 reacts with exactly two moles of NaOH:
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
As we know that amount of substance of a given concentration in given volume of solution is n=C×V, we can write:
1 where 2 is a coefficient reflecting stoichiometry of the reaction equation. There is only one unknown in this equation:
2 So we have just determined concentration of unknown concentration of sulfuric acid.
Such stoichiometric calculation is the basis of all volumetric analytical methods. They differ when it comes to reagents used and methods of determination of the end point, but the general idea is always the same.
A volumetric determination can be no better than the equipment and technique used in performing it.

Acid-base titrations

2010-07-06T08:31:00.000-07:00

Acid-base titrations

Acid-base titrations are based on the neutralization reaction. They are sometimes called alkalimetric titrations and general name of the method is alkalimetry, although these are not used as often as just "acid-base titration".
Acid-base titrations can be used to determine most acids and bases, strong and not too weak, monoprotic and polyprotic. For example we can use acid-base titration to determine concentration of hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, acetic acid, as well as bases - like sodium hydroxide, ammonia and so on. In some particular cases, when solution contains mixture of acids or bases of different strengths, it is even possible to determine in one titration composition of a mixture - for example sodium hydroxide and sodium hydrogen carbonate. Using acid-base back titration it is also possible to determine amount of substances that can be easily dissolved in acids, like calcium carbonate. To do so we would add known amount of hydrochloric acid to calcium carbonate and after the solid is dissolved we would titrate excess acid with a strong base.
Most commonly used reagents are hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. Solutions of hydrochloric acid are stable, solutions of sodium hydroxide can dissolve glass and absorb carbon dioxide from the air, so they should be not stored for long periods of time.
There are many standard substances that can be used in acid base titrations. Those most popular are sodium carbonate Na2CO3, borax (disodium tetraborate decahydrate) Na2B4O7·10H2O and potassium hydrogen phthalate KHC8H4O4, often called simply KHP.
Type of indicator depends on several factors. One of them is the equivalence point pH. Depending on the titrated substance and titrant used this can vary, usually between 4 and 10. However, even if it is often possible (see list of pH indicators) we are rarely selecting indicator that changes color exactly at the equivalence point, as usually increase of accuracy doesn't justify additional costs. Thus in practice you will probably use phenolphtalein when NaOH is used as the titrant and methyl orange when titrating with the strong acid.

Remember, that what we calculate is not end point - but equivalence point.
In the equivalence point we have solution containing pure salt that is a product of the neutralization reaction occurring during titration. Thus calculation of equivalence point pH is identical with calculation of pH of salt solution.
Depending on the type of titration there are at least three different cases to discuss.
In the case of titration of strong acid with strong base (or strong base with strong acid) there is no hydrolysis and solution pH is neutral - 7.00 (at 25°C).
In the case of titration of weak acid with strong base, pH at the equivalence point is determined by the weak acid salt hydrolysis. That means we have to find pKb of conjugated base and calculate concentration of OH- starting from there, then use pH=14-pOH formula. See pH of weak acids and bases lecture and pH cheat sheet for details of calculation.
In the case of titration of weak base with strong acid, situation is very similar - pH at the equivalence point is determined by the weak base salt hydrolysis. Thus we need pKa of conjugated acid to calculate H+ and pH. Check lecture and cheat sheet mentioned above for details.
In the case of polyprotic acids and bases calculations get much harder. You may try to follow methods described in the lecture on polyprotic acids and bases pH calculation, or you may use BATE - pH calculator.
Calculate pH at the equivalence point of formic acid titration with NaOH, assuming both titrant and titrated acid concentrations are 0.1 M. pKa = 3.75.
At the equivalence point we have a solution of sodium formate. As both concentrations of titrated acid and titrant are identical, and monoprotic formic acid reacts 1:1 with sodium hydroxide, we have to add identical volume of base to the given volume of acid. That in turn means that final volume is twice that of initial volume of acid sample, so after dilution concentration of formate must be half that of acid - that is 0.05 M.
We have titrated weak acid, so to calculate pH we have to calculate concentration of OH- from formate hydrolysis first. Formate is a weak base with
1
Let's try to use the most simplified formula first:
2
Using 10-10.25 and 0.05 we get
3
To be sure we can use the simplified formula we have to check, whether hydrolysis was below 5%. To do so, we should divide concentration of OH- by initial concentration of formate. That means
4
Obviously assumption about low hydrolysis degree is correct, and we can proceed with calculation of pOH:
5
and pH:
6
What is pH at the equivalence point of 0.0211 M H2SO4 titrated with 0.01120 M NaOH?
7.0
OK, that was very short answer, now a little bit longer one. This is case of strong acid titrated with strong base, so we expect pH at equivalence point to be that of neutral solution - that is, 7.00. In reality the answer will be slightly different. Three reasons for that. First, sulfuric acid has pKa1 = -3 (very strong acid) but second dissociation step has pKa2 = 2.0, so it is much weaker. Still strong, but weak enough so that its hydrolysis can't be ignored, especially in more concentrated solutions. Second, NaOH - while strong base - is much weaker than it is commonly assumed, with pKb = 0.2 (see pKb of NaOH in ChemBuddy FAQ for details), so in precise calculations its hydrolysis can't be neglected as well. Finally, there is a reason that we are ignoring in all our examples, but that can't be neglected in the real lab - that is, activity coefficients of all ions involved are not 1 (more on that in ChemBuddy lecture on ionic strength and activity coefficients). If we take all these things into account we can calculate pH of the solution to be 7.05, close enough to 7.0.

PREFOMULATION

2010-03-19T09:49:00.000-07:00

PREFOMULATION
The Concept of Preformulation:-
Almost all drugs are marketed as tablets, capsules or both. Prior to the development of these major dosage forms, it is essential that pertain fundamental physical and chemical properties of the drug molecule and other divided properties of the drug powder are determined. This information decides many of the subsequent events and approaches in formation development. This first learning phase is known as preformulation.
Definition:-
Preformulation involves the application of biopharmaceutical principles to the physicochemical parameters of drug substance are characterized with the goal of designing optimum drug delivery system.
Before beginning the formal preformulation programs the preformulation scientist must consider the following factors :-
- The amount of drug available.
- The physicochemical properties of the drug already known.
- Therapeutic category and anticipated dose of compound.
- The nature of information, a formulation should have or would like to have.
Preformulation drug characterization in a structured program:-
Test
Method/ function Characterization
Fundamental

1) UV spectroscopy
Simple assay
2) Solubility
Phase solubility/ purity
a) Aqueous
Intrinsic & pH effect
b) pKa
solubility control , salt formation
c) Salt
Solubility, hygroscopicity & stability
d)Solvents
Vehicles & Extraction
e) ko/ w
Lipophillicity, structure activity
f) Dissolution
Biopharmacy
3) Melting point
DSC-polymorphism hydrate & solvent
4) Assay development
UV, HPLC, TLC
5) Stability

In Solution
Thermal, hydrolysis, pH
In solid state
Oxidation, proteolysis metal ion
Derived

6) Microscopy
Particle size and morphology
7) Bulk density
Tablet and capsule formation
8) Flow properties
Tablet and capsule formation
9) Compression properties
Acid / excipient choice
10) Excipient compatibility
Preliminary screen by DSC, Conformation by TLC
UV Spectroscopy :-
The first requirement of any preformulation study is the development of a simple analytical method for quantitative estimation in subsequent steps. Most of drugs have aromatic rings and/or double bonds as part of their structure and absorb light in UV range, UV spectroscopy being a fairly accurate and simple method is a performed estimation technique at early preformulation stages. The absorption Co-efficient of the drug can be determined by the formula:-
E = AF / X
Where , A = Asborbance
F= dilution factor
X = weight of drug (mg)
It is now possible to determine connectration of drug in any solution by measuring absorbance.
C = AF / E mg/ ml
Characterization of drug molecules is very important step at the preformulation phase of product development. Following studies are conducted as basic preformulation studies, special studies are conducted depending on the type of dosage form and the type of drug molecules.
1) Solubility determination
2) pKa determination
3) Partition co-efficient
4) Crystal properties and polymorphism
5) Practical size, shape and surface area.
6) Chemical stability profile.
Solubility Determination:-
The solubility of drug is an important physicochemical property because it effects the bioavailabilty of the drug, the rate of drug resale into dissolution medium and consequently, the therapeutic efficiency of the pharmaceutical product.
The solubility of the molecules in various solvents is determined as a first step. This information is valuable is developing a formulation. Solubility is usually determined in variety of commonly used solvents and some oils if the molecules is lipophillic.
The solubility of material is usually determined by the equilibrium solubility method, which employs a saturated solution of the material, obtained by stirring an excess of material in the solvent for a prolonged until equilibrium achieved :-
Common solvents used for solubility determination are :-
·Water
·Polyethylene Glycols
·Propylene Glycol
·Glycerin
·Sorbitol
·Ethyl Alcohol
·Methanol
·Benzyl Alcohol
·Isopropyl Alcohol
·Tweens Polysorbates
·Castor Oil
·Peanut Oil
·Sesame Oil
·Buffer at various pHs
Aqueous Solubility :-
The availability of a drag is always limited and the preformulation scientist may only have 50 mg. Solubility dictates the ease with which formulation for oral gavages and intravenous injection studies in animals are obtained the pKa allives the informed of pH to maintain solubility and to choose salts required to achieve good bioavailability from the solid state and improve stability and powder properties.
Intensic Solubility (Co) :-
An increase in solubility in acid compared to aqueous solubility suggests a weak base and an increase in alkali, a weak acid . An increase in acidic and alkaline solubility suggest either impotence or zuitter ion behaviour. In this case there will be two pKa’s, one acidic & one basic . When the pavrity of the drug sample can be assured the solubility obtained in acid for a weak acid or albali for a weak base can be assured to be the instensic solubility (Co.) i.e. the fundamental solubility when completely unionized. The solubility should ideally be measured at two temperature.
1)4C to ensure physical stability and entered short term storage and chemical stability unit more definitive data are available. The minimum density of water occurs at 4C. This leads to a minimum aqueous solubility.
2)37C to support biopharmaceutral evaluation .
pKa Determination:-
Determination of the dissociation content for a drug capable of ionization within a ph rang of 1 to 10 is important since solubility and consequently absorption, cab be altered by orders of magnitude with changing pH. The Henderson – Hasseslebach equation provides an estimate of the ionized and un ionized durg concentration at a particular pH.
For acidic compounds
pH = pKa + log (un-ionized drug]) / [ionized drug])

Partition Coefficient :-
Partition Coefficient (oil/ water) is a measure of a drug’s lipophilicity and an indication of its ability to cross cell membranes. It is defined as the ratio of unionized drug distributed between the organic and aqueous phases at equilibrium.
P o/w = (C oil / C water) equilibrium.
For series of compounds, the partition coefficient can provide an empiric handle in screening for some biologic properties. For drug delivery, the lipophilic/ hydrophilic balance has been shown to be a contributing factor for the rate and extent of drug absorption. Although partition coefficient data alone does not provide understanding of in vivo absorption, it does provide a means of characterizing the lipophilic/ hydrophilic nature of the drug.
Since biological membranes are lipoidal in nature. The rate of drug transfer for passively absorbed drugs is directly related to the lipophilicity of the molecule. The partition coefficient is commonly determined using an oil phase of octanol or chloroform and water.
Drugs having values if P much greater than 1 are classified as lipophilic, whereas those with partition coefficient much less than 1 are indicative of a hydrophilic drug.
Although it appears that the partition coefficient may be the best predictor of absorption rate, the effect id dissolution rate, pKa and solubility on absorption must not be neglected.
Dissolution :-
The dissolution rate of the a drug is only important where it is the rate limiting step in the absorption process. Kaplan suggested that provided the solubility of a drug exceded to mg/ ml at pH , 7 no bioavailability or distinction related problems were to be expected. Below / mg/ ml such problems were quite possible and salt formation could improve absorption and solubility by controlling the pH of the microenvironment, independently of the drug and dosage forms position within the GI ireat.
Intrinsic Dissolution Rate :-
When dissolution is controlled solely by diffusion the rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the saturated concentration of the drug in solution under these conditions the rate constant K1 is defined by
K1 = 0.62 D2/3 v 1/6 w1/2
Where, V is the kinemative viscosity
W is the anguter velocity of a rotating disc of drug.
Common Ion Effect :-
A common ion significantly reduces, the solubility of a slightly soluble electrolyte. The ‘selling out’ results from the removal of water molecules as solvent owing to the completing hydration of other ions. The reverse process ‘salting in’ qries with large anions e.g. benzoate, salivate which open the water structure. These hydro topics increase the solubility of properly water soluble compounds such as diazepam.
Melting Point :-
The melting point of a drug can be measured using three techniques :-
1)Capillary Melting
2)Hot Stage Microcopy
3)Differential scanning calorinetry or thermal Anaylysis.
Capillary Melting :-
Capillary melting gives information about the melting range but it is different to assign an accurate melting point.
Hot Stage Microcopy :-
This the issued observation of melting under a microscope equipped with a heated and lagged sample stage. The heating rate is controllable and upto three transitions can e registered.
Differential Scanning Calorimeltry and thermal analysis :-
Differential thermal analysis (DTA) measures the temperature difference between the sample and a reference as a function of temperature or time when heating at a constant rate differential scanning calorinetry (DSC) is similar to DTA except that the instrument measures the amount of energy required to keep the sample at the same temperature as the reference i.e. it measures the enthalpy of transition.
Crystal Properties and Polymorphism :-
Many drug substance can exit in more than one crystalline from with different space lattice arrangements. This property is known as polymorphism. Polymorphs generally have diffrent melting points, x-ray diffraction patterns and solubility even though they are chemically identical.
Differences in the dissolution rates and solubilities of different polymorphic forms of a given drug are very commonly observed. When the absorption of a drug is dissolution rate limited, a more soluble and faster-dissolving from may be utilized to improve the rate and extent of bioavailability.
For drugs pane to degradation in the solid state, physical form of the drug influences degradation. Selection of a polymorph that is chemically more stable is a solution in many cases. Different polymorph also lead to different morphology, tensile strength and density of power bed which all contribute of compression characteristics of materials. Some investigation of polymorphism and crystal habit of a drug substance as it relates to pharmaceutical processing is desirable during its Preformulation evaluation especially when the active ingredient is expected to constitute the bulk of the tablet mass. Although a drug substance may exist in two or more polymorphic forms, only one form is theromdynamically stable at a given temperature and pressure. The other forms would convert to the stable form with time. In general, the stable polymorph exhibits the highest melting point , the lowest solubility, and the maximum chemical stability. Various techniques are available for the investigation of the solid state. These include microscopy (including hot stage microcopy), infrared spectrophotometry, single-crystal x-ray and x-ray power diffraction, thermal analysis, and dilalometry.
Particle Size, Shape and Surface Area:-
Bulk flow, formulation homogeneity, and surface-area controlled processes such as dissolution and Surface morphology of the drug particles. In general, each new drug candidate should be tested during Preformulation with the smallest particle size as is practical to facilitate preparation of homogeneous samples and maximize the drug’ s surface area for interactions.
Various chemical and physical properties of drug substances are affected by their particle size distribution and shapes. The effect is not only on the physical properties of solid drugs but also, in some instances, on their biopharmaceutical behavior. It is generally recognized that poorly soluble drugs showing a dissolution- rate limiting step in the absorption process will be more readily bio available when administered in a finely subdivided state rather than as a coarse material.
In case of tablets, size and shape influence the flow and the mixing efficiency of powders and granules. Size can also be a factor in stability: fine materials are relatively more open to attack from atmospheric oxygen, the humidity, and interacting axcipients than are coarse materials.
- Determination of particle size
-Determination of surface area
Particle size Determination:-
Though microscopy is the simplest technique of estimating size ranges and shapes, it is to slow for quantitative determination the material is best observed as a suspension in non dissolving fluid. Saving is less useful technique at preformulation storage due to lack of bulk material. Andreason pipette is based on the rate difference of sedimentation of different particles, but techniques like this are seldom used due to their tedious nature instruments based on light scattering, (Royco), light blockage (HIAC) and blockage of electrical conductivity path (coulter counter) are available.
Surface Area Determination:-
Surface area is most commonly determined based on brunaver emette teller (BET) theory of adsorption. Most substances adsorb a mono molecular layer of gas under certain conditions of partial pressure of gas and temperature. Knowing the monolayer capacity of adsorbent and the area of absorbale molecule, the surface area can be calculated the adsorption process is carried out with nitrogen at-195 degree Celsius at a partial pressure attainable when nitrogen is in a 30% temperature with an inert gas (helium). The adsorption takes place by virtue of vander wall’s forces.
Power Flow Properties:-
When limited amounts of drugs are available Power flow properties can be evaluated by measurements of bulk density and angle of repose. Changes in particles size, and shape are generally very important an increase in crystal size or a more uniform shape will lead to a small angle or rpose and a smaller Carr’s index.
Bulk Density :-
Knowledge of absolute and bulk density of the drug substance is Very useful in Having some idea as to the size of final dosage form the density of solids also of affects their flow Properties Carr’s compressibility index can be used to predict the flow properties based on density measurement.

Carr’s index (%) = Tapped density – Pored density *100
Tapped density
A similar index has been defined by Hausner :
Hausner ratio = Tapped density
Pored density
Angle of repose:-
The maximum angle which is formed b/w the surface of a pile of powder and horizontal surface is called the angle of repose.
Relationship between flow, angle of repose, Carr’s index fee power flow
Flow
Angle of repose
Carr’s index ( % )
Excellent
<25
5-15
Good
25-30
12-16
Fair to passable
30-40
18-21
Poor
> 40
23-35
Very Poor

33-38
Extremely Poor

>40
Chemical stability profile:
Preformulation stability studies are usually the first quantitative assessment of chemical stability of a new drug. These studies include both solution and solid state experiments under condition typical for the handing, formulation, storage, and administration of a drug candidate as well as stability in presence of other recipients.
Factor effecting chemical stability critical in rational dosage form design include temperature, pH and dosage form diluents. The method of sterilization of potential product will be largely dependent on the temperature stability of the drug. Drugs having decreased stability at elevated temperatures cannot be sterilized by autoclaving but must be sterilized by another means, e.g., filtration. The effect of pH on drug stability is important in the development of both oral administration must be protected from the highly acidic environment of the stomach. Buffer selection for potential dosage forms will be largely based on the stability characteristic of the drug.

- Solid state stability
- Solution phase stability
- Compatibility studies : stability in the Presence of excipients
- Typical stability protocol for anew Chemical Entity
Solid state stability:-
Chemical instability normally results from either of the following reaction :- hydrolysis, oxidation, photolysis and pyrolysis, Chemical structure of the drug is the determination of drug to either of these attacks. Esters and lactase and to lesser extent, amides are to prone to solvolysis . Instauration or electron rich centre in the structure make the molecule vulnerable for free radical mediated or photo-catalysed oxidation. physical properties of drugs. Amorphous materials are less stable than their crystalline forms. Denser materials are more stable to ambient stress.
Elevated temperature studies:-
The elevated temperatures commonly used are 40, 50, and 60 degree centigrade with ambient humidity. The samples stored at highest temperature are observed weekly for physical and chemical changes and compared to an appropriate control . If a substantial change is seen, samples stored at lower temperature are examined . If no changesisseen after 30 days at 60 degree centigrade, the stability prognosis is excellent .

Stability under high humidity conditions :-
Solid drug samples can be exposed to different relative humidity conditions by keeping them in laboratory desiccators containing saturated solutions of various salts. The closed desiccators in turn are kept in oven to provide constant temperature. The preformulation data of this nature are useful in determining if the material should be protected and stored in controlled low humidity environment or if non aqueous solvent be used during formulation.
Photolytic stability :-
Many drugs fade or dorpen on exposure light. Though the extent of degradations small and limited to the exposed surface area, it presentsanaesthetic problem. Exposure of drug 400 and 900 foot-candles of illumination for 4 and 2 week periods respectively is adequate to provide some idea of photosensitivity. Resulting data may be useful in determining if an amber colored container is required or if color masking bye should be used in the formulation .
Stability to Oxidation :-
Drug’s sensitivity to oxidation can be examined by exposing it to atmosphere of high oxygen tension. Usually a 40% oxygen atmosphere allows for rapid evaluation. A shallow layer of drug exposed to a sufficient headspace volume ensures that the system is not oxygen limited. Samples are kept in desiccators equipped with three-way stop cocks, which are alternatively evacuated and flooded with desired atmosphere. The process is repeated 3 or 4 times to ensure 100% desired atmosphere. Results may be useful in predicting if an antioxidant is required in the formulation or if the final product should be packaged under inert atmospheric conditions.
Compatibility studies :-
The knowledge of drug excipients interaction is useful for the formulation to select appropriate excipients. The described preformulation screening of drug excipients interaction requires only 5mg of drug in a 50% mixture with the excipients to maximize the likelihood of obscuring an interaction . Mixtures should be examined under nitrogen to ultimate oxidation and paralytic effect at a standard heating rate on DSC, over a temperature range, which will encompass any thermal changes due to both the drug and appearance or disappearance one or more peaks in themogrames of drug excipient mixtures are considered of indication of interaction.
Solution phase stability:
As compared with the dry form, the degradation is much rapid in solution form. It is important ascertain that the drug doesn’t degrade when exposed to GI fluid. The pH based stability study, using different stimulator GI condition can be designed. A poor solution stability of drug may urge the formulator to choose a less soluble salt form, provided the bioavailability is not compromised

Absorption behavior:
It is essential to test the in vivo behavior of the new drug for successful formulation of a dosage from good bioavailability. Partial in vivo and in vitro test are designed to study pharmacokinetic profile of the drug.
Conclusion:
Preformulation studies have a significant part to play in anticipating formulation problems and identifying logical path in both liquid and solid dosage form technology. The need for adequate drug solubility can not be overemphasized. The most appropriate salt for development. Stability studies in solution will indicate the feasibility of parental or other liquid dosage form and can identify methods of stabilization. In parallel solid-state stability by DSC, TLC and HPLC in the presence of tablet and capsule excipient will indicate the most acceptable vehicles for solid dosage form.
By comparing the physicochemical properties of each drug candidate with in a therapeutic group, the preformulation scientist can assist the synthetic chemist to identify the optimum molecule, provide the biologist with suitable vehicles to elicit pharmacological response and advise the bulk chemist about the selection and production of the best salt with appropriate particle size and morphology for subsequent processing.

Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)B. PHARMA-IV SEMESTER

2010-03-13T18:54:00.000-08:00

Pharmaceutics- IV (Pharmaceutical Engineering – II) (PY-401)
Size Reduction and Size Separation- Definition objectives and significance of size
reduction, Factors affecting size reduction, Standard of powders, Sieves and their usage
in grading of powders, Laws governing energy and power requirements of a mill,
Classification of size reduction machines, Study of various types of mill including ball
mill, hammer mill fluid energy mill energy mill etc. Fluid classification methods.
Evaporation-Basic concepts, Factors affecting evaporation, Types of evaporators, Study
of short tubs evaporators, Forced circulation evaporators and Film evaporators, Single
and multiple effect evaporation, Evaporation under reduced pressure, Evaporation
capacity, Heat and material balance, Scale formation, Foam and entrainment.
Distillation- General theory applied to binary mixtures, Boiling point and equilibrium
diagrams, Raout’s Law and Henry’s Law, Constant boiling mixtures, Simple, steam and
Equilibrium distillations, Rectification, Constructions of rectifying columns. Analysis of
rectifying column: McCabe Thiel method and Lewis Sorel method for calculation of
number of theoretical plates, Azeotropic and extractive distillations.
Drying- Introduction, Theory of drying Rate of drying curves, Classification of dryers,
Study of dryers used in pharmaceutical industries, Special drying methods.
Extraction- Principles of solid-liquid and liquid- liquid extraction, Theories of extraction
of drugs, Diffusion battery, Podbielnaik extractor, Continuous counter- current
extraction system.
Crystallization-Importance of crystal purity, size, shape, geometry habit forms and
types, Solubility curves and calculation of yields, Mier,s supersaturation theory and its
limitations, Nucleation and crystal growth, Classification of crystallizers, Principles
underlying the design and operation of Tank, Swenson-walker, Krystal and Vacuum
crystallizer, Crystallizer employed for producing large crystals, Caking of crystals and its
prevention.
Mixing-Theory of mixing, Solid-solid; solid-liquid and liquid-liquid mixers used in
pharmaceutical industries.
Filtration and Centrifugation- Theory of filtration, Factors affecting filtration, Filter
media, Filter aids, Classification of filters, Industrial filters including Filter press, Rotary
filter, Membrane filter etc.
Principles of centrifugation, Industrial filters and centrifugation sedimenters.
Compaction and Compression- Adhesion and Cohesion of particles, Strength of
granules, Factors affecting strength of tablets, Physics of tablet compression.
Pilot Plant Scale Up Techniques- Concepts of pilot plant, scale up techniques in
pharmaceutical industries.
Books recommended
1 Elementary Chemical Engineering - Max S. Peters, Published by McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, 1954.
2 Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook - Robert H Perry, Green D.W., Maloney O.7th
Edition, 1998, McGraw – Hill Inc., New York.
3 Tutorial Pharmacy by Cooper & Gunn, ed. S.J.Carter, CBS Publishers & Distributors,
Delhi, 6th Edition, 2000.
4. Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5th edition – McCabe, Smith & Harriott,
McGraw – Hill Inc., New York.
5 Pharmaceutical Engineering – K.Sambamurthy, 2002 NAI (P) Ltd., Delhi.
6 Pharmaceutics : The Science of Dosage Form Design - M.E. Aulton.
7 The Theory & Practice of Industrial Pharmacy – Lachman L., Lieberman H.A. &
Kanjig J.L., 3rd edition, 1990 Varghese Publishing House, Bombay.
8 Alfonso G. Remington: The Science & Practice of Pharmacy. Vol.I & II. Lippincott,
Williams & Wilkins Philadelphia.
9 Jani G. K., Pharmaceutics II (Unit Operations), B. S. Shah Prakashan, Ahmedabad.
10 Subramanyam C.V.S., Thimma J, Suresh S.S. et. al., Pharmaceutical Engineering :
Principles and Practice, 2002, Vallabh Prakashan, Delhi.
11 Introduction to Chemical Engineering by Walter L. Badger & Julius T. Banchero,
Mcgraw Hill International edition, New Delhi, 1955.
12 Filtration in Pharma. Industry by Theodore H. Meltzer, Marcel Dekker Inc.,
New York, 1987.
13. A. R. Paradkar, Introduction to Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nirali Prakashan, 10
th
Ed. 2007.
List of practicals
PY401 Pharmaceutics – IV (any twelve)
1. Study the effect of diameter of balls, No. of balls volume of balls or feed amount
on the particle size reduction wing ball mill.
2. Calculate the energy requirement (as per Riltinger’s law) for the powder milling.
3. Study the particle size distribution the given sample using standard sieve method.
4. Determine the particle size distribution of a given sample using microscopy.
5. Study the rate of sedimentation of the given sample.
6. Study the effect of suspending agents on the rate of sedimentation of the given
sample.
7. Compare the efficiency of different suspending agents on the rate of
sedimentation of the given sample.
8. Study the effect of temperature, surface area and viscosity of the liquid on the rate
of evaporation.
9. Construct the boiling point diagram for the given mixture of alcohol and water.
10. Separate the constituents of the given a zeotropic mixture by the addition of third
agent.
11. Study the rate of drying and determine EMC, CMC and FMC.
12. Study the effect of surface area, material bed thickness, temperature and moisture
content on the rate of drying.
13. Compare the efficiency of single stage extraction with multiple stage extraction.
14. Determine the percentage of acetic acid extracted from the mixture of benzene
and acetic acid using water as our extracting agent.
15. Prepare mier’s super solubility curve for the given samples.
16. Determine the percentage purity of the given sample using crystallization
technique.
17. Determine the mixing index for the mixing of give powders.
18. Determine the effect of surface area, thickness of filter medium, viscosity of
liquid, temperature and filter aid on the rate of filtration.
Pharmaceutics –V (Dosage Form Design) (PY- 402)
Pharmaceutical preformulation: -
Definition and scope,
Establishment and importance of following physicochemical parameters
Solubility, pKa and selection of suitable salt, partition coefficient, dissolution,
polymorphism, microscopy and powder properties, stability and drug-excipient
compatibility Pharmaceutical factors influencing drug formulation.
Study of different types of formulation additives:
Diluents, Binders, Disintegrating agents, Lubricants, Solvents, Co-solvents and Vehicles,
Preservatives, Suspending agents, Emulsifying agents, Antioxidants, Preservatives,
colouring, flavoring and sweetning agents, Viscosity enhancers, ointment and
suppositories bases
Polymers and biodegradable polymers:
Classification, Methods of synthesis, Properties, Characterization and evaluation.
Brief introduction of biodegradable polymers, pharmaceutical applications of polymers..
Dissolution stability and degradation study:
Chemical stability, pathways of degradation, physical and phase transformation, stability
testing protocols for various pharmaceutical dosage forms, determination of expiry date
(shelf life) and overage calculations, stabilization of pharmaceutical formulations.
Drug product design:
Stages of drug discovery and development process, Importance of product design,
considerations.
Dissolution technology:
Theories of dissolution, factors affecting dissolution, design of various dissolution
apparatus, dissolution media, dissolution testing of different types of dosage
formulations, data interpretation, mathematical models for predication of dissolution of
profile.
List of practicals:
(Any ten)
1. Establish the following preformulation parameters of the given drug sample.
(a) Melting point (b) solubility (c) intrinsic solubility (d) pKa (e) Partition coefficient
2. Establish the following preformulation parameters of the given drug sample.
(a) Particle size distribution (b) Flow proportion (c) Bulk deurity (d) Carr’s index (e)
Compression preparation.
3. Study the drug excipient compatibility of given drug with commonly used
excipent by TLC technique.
4. Estimate the self life of the given drug
5. Study the effect of mesture content on chemical stability of aspirin.
6. Study the effect of temperation on stability of given photosensitive drug.
7. Determine the molecular Mass of given polymer by viscometer.
8. Perform the in-vitro dissolution study of given the sample of tablet.
9. Study the effect of presence of surfactant in dissolution of tablet cantoning poorly
soluble drug.
10. Study the effect of solvent / co-solvent hydrotropic agents on solubility of given
drug.
11. Study the effect of pH of dissolution on in-vitro dissuasion study.
12. Compare the dissolution profile of two marketed tablet products.
References:
1. Swarbrick J., Boylan J.C., Encydopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology, Second
edition, Volume-1,2,3, Marcel Dekker, Inc. Newyork.
2. Qice yihong, ChenY, Zhang G.G.Z., Developing solid Oral dosage forms-
Pharmaceutical Theory and Practice charon Tech Ltd.
3. Allen L.V., Popovich N.G., Ansel H.C., Ansel’s Pharmaceutics design and drug
delivery systems, Eight edition, B.I. Publication Pvt. Ltd.
4. Aulton M.E. Pharmaceutics- The science of dosage form design” second edition.,
Churchill Livingstone Pvt. Ltd.
5. Banker G.S., Rhodes C.T., Modern Pharmaceutics” second edition, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., Newyork.
6. Kanig J.J., Liebermen H.A., Lachman L. “The theory and Practics of Industrial
Pharmacy, Varghese Publishing House, Bombay.
7. Rowe RC, Sheskey P.J., Owen S.C., Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipents,
Fifth edition, Pharmaceutical Pr.
8. Bugay D.E., Findlay W.P., Pharmaceutical Excipents, Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Newyork.
9. Kim C.J., Advanced Pharmaceutics- Physiochemical Principle CRC Press,
Florida.
10. Jan N.K., Pharmaceutical Product Development, CBS Publishers and distributors,
New Delhi.
11. Shah D.H., “SOP Guidelines”, Business Horizons Publishers, New Delhi.
12. Wachter A.H., Nash R.A., “Pharmaceutical Process validation, Marcel Dekker,
Inc. Newyork.
13. Mazzo D.J., “International stability Testing” Interpha Press, Inc. Illinois.
14. Gibaldi M., Perriner D., “Pharmacokinetics:, Marcel Dekker Newyork.
BRANCH: PHARMACY-IV SEMESTER
COURSE: PY 403 PHARMACEUTICAL ANALYSIS (THEORY)
Fundamentals, Significance of quantitative analysis in quality control, Different techniques of analysis.
Theoretical considerations and pharmaceutical applications; with special reference to Indian
pharmacopoeia; of the following analytical techniques -
1) Acid-Base titrations: Theoretical principles. Classification, Direct titration of strong acids, Strong
bases, and weak bases, Back titrations, Acid –Base indicators, Choice of indicators and mixed
indicators. Methods for determination of organically combined Nitrogen and in pharmaceutical
applications.
2) Oxidation-Reduction titrations: Concepts of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, strengths &
equivalent weighs of oxidizing and reducing agents, redox indicators, potassium permanganate
titrations, iodometry & iodometry, 9£dcammonium sulphate titrations, potassium iodate titrations.
Pharmaceutical applications, preparation and standardization of redox titrants e.g. sodium thiosulphate
etc.
3) Precipitation titrations: Detection of End Points in Precipitation reactions. Indicators used in
Precipitation titrations, Preparation & standardization of titrants like silver nitrate, ammonium
thiocyanate; titrations according to Mohr's and Volhard's methods; ammonium and potassium
thiocyanate titrations; indicators; applications in pharmaceutical analysis
4) Gravimetric analysis: Fundamentals of gravimetry, Precipitation reagents precipitation techniques,
Specific examples of gravimetric estimation like Aluminum as hydroxy quinolate, Barium on Barium
Sulfate, Lead as Chromate and Magnesium as Magnesium Pyrophosphate.
5) Non-aqueous titrations: Scopes and limitations, Solvents used in non aqueous titrations. Acid-base
equilibria in non-aqueous media, Titration of weak acids and weak bases with specific examples given
in Indian Pharmacopoeia.
6) Complexometric titrations: Theory of Complexometric analysis. Factor in influencing stability of
complexes. pM indicators. Types of Disodium edetate titrations with suitable examples.
7) Conductometry: Ohm’s law and ionic conductivities, Apparatus used for conductimetric titrations.
Application of conductimetry in acid-base, Precipitation and complexometric titrations with suitable
examples.
8) Potentiometry: Theory and principles, Reference electrodes, Indicators electrodes and Ion selective
electrodes. Instrumentation for potentiometric titrations. Application of potentiometry for end point
determination in acid-base titration, redox titrations, precipitation titrations with suitable examples
9) Polarography & Amperometry: Introduction, theoretical principles, organic polarography, dropping
mercury electrode, basic principles of polarographic instruments, methods of analysis, experiments
including amperometric titrations.
10) Miscellaneous methods of analysis like diazotization titrations and Karl-fisher titrations.
List of Practicals:
A total of 15 experiments should be performed on the topics mentioned below
1. Acid base titrations: Preparation and standardization of acids and bases, some exercises related to
the determination of acids and bases separately and in mixture form. Some official assay procedures of
boric acid, ascorbic acid shall also be covered.
2. Oxidation-reduction titration: Preparation and standardization of some redox titrants, e.g.,
potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate, iodine, sodium thiosulphate etc. Some exercises
related to the determination of oxidizing and reducing agents in the sample shall be covered. Exercises
involving use of potassium iodate, potassium bromate, ceric ammonium sulphate shall be performed.
3. Precipitation titrations: Preparation and standardization of titrants like silver nitrate and ammonium
thiocyanate, titrations according to Mohr's and Volhard's methods.
4. Gravimetric analysis: Determination of water of hydration, some exercises related to Gravimetric
estimation of metal ions such as barium, magnesium and calcium shall he covered.
5. Diazotization reaction: Assay of sulphonamides.
6. Complexometric titration: Any two official assays done by this method.
7. Non-aqueous titrations: preparation and standardization of some non aqueous titrants, e.g.,
Perchloric acid, tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide. Any two official assay given in Pharmacopoeia of
India.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED
1. A.H. Beckett and J.B. Stenlake: Practical Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Vol I and II, CBS Publishers
and Distributors, New Delhi, India
2. H. H. Willard, L. L. Merritt and J. A. Dean: Instrumental Methods of Analysis, Van Nostrand
Reinbold, New York.
3. L.M. Atherden: Bentley and Driver's Text book of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Oxford
UniversityPress, Delhi.
4. G.L. Jenldns, J.E. Christian, G.P. Hager: Quantitative Pharmaceutical Chemistry, McGrawHill,
Company, New York.
5. Pharmacopoeia of India, Govt. of India, Ministry of Health, Delhi.
6. Bassett, R.C. Denney, G.H. Jeffery, J. Mendham: Vogel's Textbook of quantitative Inorganic
Analysis, The ELBS and Longman, London.
Course Contents
Category of
Course
Course Title Course
Code
Credit-4C Theory Paper
(ES)
Pharmaceutical L T P
Chemistry-V
(Biochemistry) (Theory)
PY 404
4 0 3
Max.Marks-70
Duration-3hrs.
Branch: Pharmacy-IV Semester
Course: PY -404 Pharmaceutical Chemistry-V (Biochemistry) Theory
Biochemical organization of the cell and transport processes across cell membrane.
The concept of free energy, determination of charges in free energy system from
equilibrium constant and reduction potential, bioenergetics, production of ATP and its
biological significance.
Structure and Functions of Proteins:
Amino acids and Peptides, Determination of Primary structure and higher orders of
structure.
Enzymes:
Nomenclature, Kinetics ans its Mechanism of action, Mechanism of
Inhibition,Isoenzymes, enzymes in technical diagnosis.
Co-enzymes:
Metals as coenzymes and their significance and Vitamins as coenzymes and their
significance.
Carbohydrate Metabolism:
Conversion of Polysaccharide to Glucose 1-Phosphate, Glycolysis and Fermentation and
their regulation, Gluconeogenesis and Glycogenolysis, metabolism of galactose and
galactosemia, role of sugar nucleotide in biosynthesis, pentosephosphate pathway.
The Citric acid cycle:
The significance, reaction and energetics of cycle, amphibolic role of cycle, Glyoxalic
Acid Cycle.
Lipid Metabolism:
Oxidation of fatty acids, Beta Oxidation and energetic, alpha oxidation,omega oxidation,
Biosynthesis of Ketone bodies and their utilisation, Biosynthesis of saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoids, phospholipids, sphingolipids.
Biological oxidation:
Redox Potential, enzymes and co-enzymes involved in oxidation reduction and its
control. The respiratory chain, its role in energy capture and its control, energetic of
oxidative phosphorylation, inhibitors of respiratory chain and oxidative phosphyrlation,
mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation.
Nitrogen & Sulphur Cycle:
Nitrogen fixation, ammonia assimilation, sulphur activation, sulphate reduction,
incorporation of sulphur in organic compounds, release of sulphur from organic
compounds
Metabolism of Ammonia and Nitrogen Containing monomers:
Nitrogen balance, biosynthesis of amino acids, catabolism of amino acids, conversion of
amino acids to specialized products, assimilation of ammonia , urea cycle, metabolic
disorders of urea cycle, metabolism biosynthesis, formation of bile pigment,
hyperbilirubinemia, purine biosynthesis, purine nucleotide interconversion, pyrimidine
biosynthesis, and formation of deoxyribonucleotides.
Disorders of Carbohydrate, Lipid and Protein Metabolism:
Biomedical Importance and Implications in Clinical Biochemistry. Diagnostic tests for
detection of metabolic disorders.
Biosynthesis of nucleic Acids:
Brief introduction to genetic organisation, organisation of mammalian genome, alteration
and rearrangement of genetic material, biosynthesis of DNA and its replication, mutation,
physical and chemical mutagenesis/ carcinogenesis, DNA repair mechanism, biosynthesis
of RNA.
Genetic code and Protein synthesis:
Genetic code, Components of protein synthesis and inhibition of protein synthesis. Brief
account of genetic engineering and polymerase chain reactions. Regulation of gene
expression.
Course Contents
Category of
Course
Course Title Course
Code
Credit
Pharmaceutical Chemistry-V L T P
(Biochemistry) Practical
PY 404
4 0 3
Branch: Pharmacy IV Semester
Course: PY- 404 Pharmaceutical Chemistry-V(Biochemistry) Practical
PY-404 PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY-V
(BIOCHEMISTRY) PRACTICAL
1. Qualitative and Quantitative chemical examination of Urine ,Blood and Faeces.
2. Food Analysis – Analysis of Milk ,Butter, Flour, Honey and Starch.
3. Systemic analysis of water for pharmaceutical purpose.
4. Seperation of amino acids by two dimensional paper chromatography and gel
electrophoresis.
5. Seperation of lipids by TLC.
6. Seperation of Serum protiens by electrophoresis on cellulose acetate.
7. Quantitative estimation of amino acids and proteins.
8. Determination of glucose.
9. Isolation and determination of RNA and DNA.
Books Recommended
1. Martin, D.W., Mays, P.A. and Redwell, V.M., Harper’s Review of Biochemistry,
Lange medical Publication.
2. Horrow, B. and Mazur, A., Text book of biochemistry, W.B. Saunders Co.
Philadelphia.
3. Lehninger, A.L., Principles of Biochemistry, CBS Publishers and Distributors.
4. Lehninger, A.L., Biochemistry, Worth Publishers Inc.
5. Stryer, L., Biochemistry, W.H. Freeman and Co. San Franscisco.
6. Plumer, D.T., An Introduction to Practical Biochemistry, Tata McGraw Hill, New
Delhi.
7. Jayaraman, J., Laboratory manual in Biochemistry, Wiley eastern Ltd., New
Delhi.
Course Contents
Category of
Course
Course Title Course
Code
Credit-4C Theory Paper
(ES)
Pharmacology-I PY 405 L T P
4 0 0
Max.Marks-70
Duration-3hrs.
Branch: Pharmacy-IV Semester
Course: PY - 405 Pharmacology-I (Theory)
General Pharmacology
a. Introduction to pharmacology, sources of drugs, dosage forms and routes of
administration, mechanism of action, combined effects of drugs, factors
modifying drug action, tolerance and dependence, pharmacogenetics.
b. Absorption, distribution and excretion of drugs, principle of basic and clinical
pharmacokinetics adverse drug reactions and treatment of poisoning, ADME drug
interaction, bioassay of drugs and biological standardization, discovery and
development of new drugs. Introduction to clinical trials.
Pharmacology of Peripheral Nervous System
a. Neurohumoral transmission (autonomous and somatic)
b. Parasympathomimetic, parasympatholytic, sympathomimetics, sympatholytics,
neuron blocking agents.
c. Neuromuscular blocking agents
d. Local anaesthetic agents
Autocoids
a. Histamine, bradykinin 5- HT and their antagonists.
b. Prostaglandins, leukotrienes and platelet activating factors.
Analgesic, Antipyretic, Anti-inflammatory and Anti-Gout Drugs:
Drugs acting on Respiratory System and Pathophysiology of respiratory system:
a. Anti-asthmatic drugs including bronchodilators
b. Anti-tussives and expectorants
Books Recommended
1. Satoskar, R.S. and Bhandarkar, S.D., Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics.
2. Tripathi, K.D., Essentials of Medical Pharmcology.
3. Kulkarni, S.K., Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, Vallabh Prakashan, New
Delhi.
4. Crossland, J and Thomson, J.H., Essential of Pharmacology, Harper and Row,
Publishers, New York.
5. Craig, C.R. and Stitzel, R.R., Modern Pharmacology, Little Brown and Company.
6. Rang, M.P. , Dale, M.M. and Riter, J.M., Pharmacology, Churchill Livingstone.
7. Paul, L., Principles of Pharmacology, Chamman and Hall.
8. Herfindal, E.T. and Hirschman, J.L., Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, William
and Wilkins.
9. Katzung, B.G., Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, Prentice Hall International.
Course Contents
Category of
Course
Course Title Course
Code
Credit
Pharmacology-I PY 405 L T P
0 0 3
Branch: Pharmacy V Semester
Course: PY 405 Pharmacology-I - Practical
V-P-1 PHARMACOLOGY I PRACTICALS
List of practicals:
1. Introduction to Experimental Pharmacology and various regulatory authorities.
2. Study of common laboratory animals and anesthetics used in animal studies.
3. Study of various routes of drug administration in experimental animals.
4. Preparation of various physiological salt solution and set up of isolated rat ileum
preparation.
5. Study the effects of various agonists and antagonists on isolated rat ileum
preparation.
6. Plot dose response curve of choline using isolated gunea pig ileum preparation.
7. Plot dose response curve of histamine using isolated guinea pig ileum preparation.
8. Study the effect of autonomic drugs mydriatic and miotic on rabbit eye.
9. Study the effect of local anesthetics on rabbit eye.
10. Study the peripheral analgesic activity of indomethacin using writhing test on
mice.
11. Study anti- inflammatory activity of indomethacin using rat paw edema paradigm.
12. Study the neuromuscular effect of d-tubocurarine/ succinyl choline using rotarod
apparatus.
Books recommended
1. Hardmen, J.G., Limbired, L.E., Molinoss, P.B., Ruddon, R.W. and Gil, A.G.,
Goodman and Gillman’s The Pharmacological basis of Therapeutics, Pergamon
Press.
2. Satoskar, R.S. and Bhandarkar, S.D., Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics.
3. Tripathi, K.D., Essentials of Medical Pharmcology.
4. Kulkarni, S.K., Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, Vallabh Prakashan, New
Delhi.
5. Crossland, J and Thomson, J.H., Essential of Pharmacology, Harper and Row,
Publishers, New York.
6. Craig, C.R. and Stitzel, R.R., Modern Pharmacology, Little Brown and Company.
7. Rang, M.P. , Dale, M.M. and Riter, J.M., Pharmacology, Churchill Livingstone.
8. Paul, L., Principles of Pharmacology, Chamman and Hall.
9. Herfindal, E.T. and Hirschman, J.L., Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, William
and Wilkins. Katzung, B.G., Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, Prentice Hall
International.

DEFINITIONS OF DOSAGE FORMS

2010-01-23T20:31:00.001-08:00

(Note: Dosage forms defined earlier are not defined here)

1. Applications: These are fluids or semi-fluid preparations intended for application to the skin.

2. Cachets: Cachets are moulded from rice paper, a material made by pouring a mixture of rice flour and water between two hot polished revolving cylinders; these are used to enclose the nauseous or disagreeable powders in tasteless powders for administration.

3. Collodions: These are fluid preparations for external use. These are applied with the help of a brush or rod. After application volatile solvent evaporates leaving flexible, protective film covering the site.

4. Draughts: Draughts are liquid oral preparations of which only one or two rather large doses of the order of 50ml are prescribed. Each dose is issued in separate container.

5. Dusting Powders: These are powders which are in a fine state of subdivision, for external applications.

They are not to be applied to the broken skin. Dusting powders are sterile powders.

6. Ear Drops: These are solutions of drugs that are instilled into the ear with a dropper.

7. Elixirs: These are clear liquids oral preparations of potent or nauseous drug. They are pleasantly flavoured and usually attractively coloured.

8. Emulsions: These are biphasic dispersed liquid dosage forms, in which two immiscible liquids are mixed with the help of emulsifying agent.

9. Enemas: An emulsion is solutions suspensions or oil in water emulsion of medicaments intended for rectal use.

10. Gargles: It is aqueous solutions used to prevent or treat throat infections. Usually they are dispensed in concentrated forms with directions for dilution with warm water before use.

11. Effervescent Granules: These are the mixture of citric acid and tartaric acid with sodium-bi –carbonate.

One or more Organoleptic agents are used. After addition of granules in to water bicarbonate reacts with bicarbonates and produces carbonic acid and preparation is taken during effervescence and immediately afterward.

12. Inhalations: There are liquid preparations of or containing volatile substance.
These are used to relieve conjection and inflammation of the respiratory tract infections.

13. Insufflations: These are medicated ducting powders that are blown by insufflators into regions such as the nose, throat, body cavities and the ear to which it would be difficult to apply the powder directly.

14. Irrigations: These are solutions of medicaments used to treat infections of the bladder, vaginal and less often the nose. Thin soft rubber tubes used for irrigation solutions administration are Catheter. (Bladder) A vulcanite or plastic pipe (Vagina), Special Glass Irrigator (nose).

15. Jellies (Gels): Jellies are transparent or translucent nongreasy semi-solid preparations mainly used externally.

16. Linctuses: These are viscous liquids, oral preparations that are usually prescribed for the relief of cough. The dose in small and to ensure prolonged action, they should be sipped slowly and swallowed neat.

17. Liniments: These are fluid semi-solid or semi-fluid preparations intended for application to the skin. These are rubbed to affected area of skin for their counter irritant or stimulating effect but some are applied on a warm dressing or with a brush for analgesic and soothing effect. They should not be applied to broken skin.

18. Lotions: These are fluid preparations for external application without friction.

19. Lozenges (Troches): These are solid dosage forms consisting mainly of sugar and gum, the gum give hardness and cohesiveness and ensuring slow release of the medicaments. They are used to medicate the mouth and throat and for slow administration of the indigestion and cough remedies.

20. Mixtures: These are the most common form of liquid orals preparations usually with aqueous vehicle and the medicaments may be in solution or suspension.

21. Mouthwashes: These are similar to gargles but are used for oral hygiene and to treat infections of the mouth.

22. Nasal Drops: These are solutions of drugs that are instilled into the nose with a dropper. They are usually aqueous because oily drops inhibit movement of cilia in the nasal mucosa and long term use may cause Lipoidal Pneumonia.

23. Ointment: These are semi-solids, greasy preparations for external use to skin, rectum and nasal mucosa.

24. Paediatric Drops: Occasionally, the children’s dose of a preparation is very small and stability considerations preclude dilution to 5ml. Then the dose is prescribed as a fraction of ML and is given by a calibrated dropper.

25. Paints: These are liquids for application to the skin or mucosa usually with a soft brush. Skin paints often have a volatile solvent that evaporates quickly to leave a dry or resinous film of medicament.

Throat pains are more viscous due to high concentration of Glycerines.

26. Pastes: These are semi-solid preparation of external application that differs from similar products in containing high proportion of finely powdered medicaments. The base may be anhydrous or water soluble. Heir stiffness makes them useful as protective coating.

27. Pastilles: Pastilles are solid medicated preparations intended to dissolve slowly in the mouth. They are softer than lozenges and their basis is either glycerol or acacia and sugar.

28. Pills: Pills are oral dosage forms that have largely been replaced by tablets and capsules. They are spherical or less often ovoid and usually Sugar-Coated.

29. Poultices: These are paste like preparations used externally to reduce inflammation because they retain heat well. After heating, the preparation is spread thickly on a dressing and applied, as hot as the patient can bear it to the affected area.

30. Powders: Powders may be defined as the fine particles which are result of communation or granulation of the dry substance.

A powder can be mixture of drugs or chemicals which are uniformly mixed together and presented in dry form. Powders are intended for Internal and External usages.

31. Solutions: These are used for many purposes. For some of these sterility is necessary e.g. Parenteral, Peritoneal dialysis and Anticoagulant solutions, Bladder irrigations and Dermatological solutions for application to broken skin. Non sterile solutions are used orally and externally.

32. Solution Tablets: These are compressed tablets that are dissolved in water to produce solution for application to the skin or mucosa. They are formed to dissolve quickly.

33. Sprays: Sprays are preparations of drugs in aqueous, alcoholic or glycerine containing media. They are applied to the mucosa of nose or throat with an atomizer or nebuliser.

34. Syrups: These are aqueous concentrated, sucrose solutions with or without one or medicaments.

Organoleptic agents are added in syrups.

35. Vitrellae: Are thin walled glass capsule containing a volatile ingredients and protected by absorbent cotton wool and an outer silk bag. For use, in angina pectoris, these capsules are crushed and the Vapours are inhaled.

36. Extracts: These are concentrated preparations containing the active principles of vegetable or animal drugs. The drugs are extracted with suitable solvents and the product is concentrated to liquid or dry or soft mass extracts.

37. Glycerines: These are solutions of medicaments in glycerol with or without addition of water.

38. Infusions: Fresh infusions made by extracting drugs for a short time with cold or boiling water are no longer used because they quickly deteriorate as a result of microbial contamination and therefore must be used within 12 hours of preparation.

39. Oxymels: As the name suggests these are preparations in which the vehicle is a mixture of acid (Acetic) and Honey.

40. Spirits: Spirits are alcoholic or Hydro-alcoholic solutions of volatile substances. Most are used are flavouring agents but a few have medicinal values.

41. Tinctures: These are alcoholic preparations containing the active principles of vegetable drugs. They are relatively weak compared with extracts.

42. Aromatic waters: These are dilute usually saturated solutions of volatile oils or other volatile substances (Chloroform and Camphor, Menthol). They are mainly used as Flavouring agents and Carminatives.

Ayurvedic medicines

2010-01-23T20:26:00.000-08:00

CLASSIFICATION AND DEFINITIONS:

Ayurvedic medicines are all the medicines intended for internal or external use, for or in the diagnosis treatment, mitigation or prevention of disease or disorder in human beings or animal and manufactured exclusively in accordance with the formulae described in the authorative books of Ayurvedic Systems of medicine specified in the first schedule of the Drug and Cosmetic act 1940. Ayurvedic Drugs are obtained from the natural source that is from animal, plants and minerals. Ayurvedic Dosages forms are classified in to four groups depending upon their physical forms:

a) Solid Dosage Forms: Pills, Gutika, Vatika.

b) Semi-solid Dosage Forms: Avleha, Paka, Lepa, Ghrta.

c) Liquid Dosage Forms: Asava, Arista, Arista, Arka, Taila, Dravaka.

d) Powder Dosage Forms: Bhasma, Satva, Mandura, Pisti, Parpati, Lavana, Kshara, Churna.
Pharmaceutical aids like Binding agent, Flavouring agent, Sweetning agents, Colouring agents, Preservatives are commonly used in Ayurvedic Formulae.

1) Asava and Arista:
Asava and Arista are the medicinal preparations prepared by soaking the drugs in the powdered forms or in the form of their decoction, in a solution of sugar or jaggery as may have intended for a specific period of time.

2) Arka:
It is the liquid preparation obtained by distillation of certain liquids or curde – drugs soaked in water using the distillation unit, (Arkayantra)

3) Avleha or Leha and Paka:
Avleha or Leha is a Semi-solid preparations of drugs prepared by addition of sugar, jaggery or sugar candy and boiled with prescribed drug juice or decoction.

4) Kvatha Curna:
The coarse powder of crude drugs or the combination of drugs in powder form, kept ready for preparation of decoction (Kasaya) are known as Kvath Curna.
e.g.: Dasmula Kvath Curna, Rasanadi Kvath Curna.

5) Curna (Churna):
Fine powder of drug or drugs is known as Curna, Drugs mentioned in yoga are cleaned, properly, dried thoroughly, Pulversied and then sieved.

6) Dravaka:
The liquid preparations obtained from lavanas or ksharas are known as Dravakas. They are prepared by distillation process with or without addition of any fluids.
e.g.: Sankha Dravaka.

7) Ksaras:
Alakaline substances obtained from the ash of drugs are known as Ksaras. Drugs are cut in to small pieces and burnt to get ash. Ash is dissolved in water, stained again evaporated to get rid of water while salty solid obtained is known as Ksar.
e.g.: Yav Ksara, Palsa Ksara.

8) Lepa:
The preparations in the form of paste meant for external applications on the body are known as Lepa.
e.g.: Sinduradi Lepa, Pathyadi Lepa.

9) Vati or Gutika:
Medicaments in the form of Tablets or pills are known as vati or Gutika.
e.g.: Muktadi Mahanjana and Chandroday Vartti.

10) Netrabindu and Anjan
Netrabindu is made by dissolving the specified drugs in water or kasaya or honey and used as eye drops. Anjans are very fine powders of medicaments to be applied with netrasalaka.
e.g.: Muktadi Mahanjana and Chandroday Vartti.

11) Sattva:
Water extractable solid substances obtained from drugs are known as Sattva.
e.g.: Gulvel Sattva.

12) Pisti:
These are obtained by triturating the drug with the specified liquids and exposing to sun or moon light.
e.g.: Praval Pisti, Mukta Pisti.

13) Ghrta (Snehkalapa):
These are preparations in which ghee in boiled with the prescribed quantity of the decoction and fine paste of the drug as specified in the formula.

14) Taila (Oils):
Tailas are the preparations in which tailas (Fixed Oils) is boiled with specified becoction and fine paste of the drug as mentioned in the prescribed formula.
e.g.: Bhrangaraja Taila, Maha Narayan Taila.

15) Bhasma:
The powdered form of the substances, obtained by calcination of metals minerals or animal products by a special process in closed crucibles in pits covered with cow dung cake (Puta) is known as Bhasma.
e.g.: Godanti Bhasma, Lauha Bhasma.

16) Rasa-Yoga:
The Medicinal Preparations containing mineral drugs as their main ingredients in the form of powder or pills are known as Rasa Yoga.
e.g.: Kapura Rasa, Laghu Malini Vasant Rasa.

17) Kupipakva-Rasayana:
These are the drugs prepared as: The minerals and drugs of metallic origin in the powdered form are mixed together and placed in glass flask occupying about one third of volume. The glass flask is closed with clay smeared pieces of cloth around the bottle in seven consecutive layers. The flask is dried and buried in sand (Valukayantra) up to neck. The flask in Valukayantra is then heated gradually in three that is Mrdu-agni, Madyamgni and tiksnagni for specified period of time as mentioned in process. Then the red hot iron rod about 5cm in diameter is inserted in glass flask through the opening and stirred properly, do that opening of flask is not chocked due to the coating formed by sublimed Sulphur. When the process is over, the glass flask is cooled and broken to collect the content carefully without the contamination of any glass pieces therein.
e.g.: Makaradhvaja, Swarna sindura.

B. PHARMA-III SEMESTER REVISED SYLLABUS

2009-10-06T09:04:00.000-07:00

Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)
B. PHARMA-III SEMESTER
PHARMACEUTICS –III (PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING-I) PY- 301Unit operations and processes, Material and energy balances, Dimensionless equations:
formulas and groups.
1. Materials of Pharmaceutical Plant Construction:
Factors affecting the material selection for pharmaceutical plants, Physical: Chemical,
Mechanical properties and use of the important materials of construction with special
reference to Ferrous metals, Copper, Aluminum, Nickel, Glass, Plastics and their alloys Heat
and Corrosion resistant alloys.
2. Corrosion and its Prevention:
General considerations, Types of Corrosion, Methods of reducing Corrosion, Simple
mathematical problems.
3. Industrial Hazards and Safety measures:
Mechanical, Chemical, Electrical, Fire and Dust Hazards, Safety requirements, Legal
requirements, Industrial dermatitis.
4. Fluid Flow:
Fluid statics, Manometers, Types of flow, Reynold’s Number and its significance, Concept of
boundary layers, Bernoulli’s theorem and its applications, Measurement of flow of – fluids,
Valves.
5. Material Handling Systems:
Liquid handling: Different types of pumps.
Solid handling: Conveyors
6. Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer mechanisms, Heat transfer by conduction, Fourier’s law, Natural and forced
convection, Surface and overall heat transfer coefficients, Heat transfer by radiation, Heaters and
heat exchangers.
7. Humidity, Air- Conditioning and Refrigeration:
Basic concepts and definitions of various terms, Psychometric charts, Wet bulb theory,
Measurement of humidity, Application of humidity measurement, air-conditioning and
refrigeration in Pharmacy.
8. Automated Process Control Systems:
Process variables, Temperature, Pressure, Flow, Level and Vacuum and their measurements.
Elements of computer aided manufacturing (CAM).
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
1. Determine the corrosion rate of different materials
2. Determine the corrosion rate of the metal in different environments
3. Calibrate a venturimeter and interpret the energy losses graphically.
4. Determine the rate of heat transfer using different materials.
5. Calculate the humidity at different places using dry bulb and wet bulb temperature
method.
6. Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of the given condenser
7. Determine the water vapour permeability across the given packaging material.
8. Determine the nature of flow of fluid and Reynolds Number by using Reynolds
apparatus.
9. Determine the rate of flow of the given fluid by orifice meter.
10. Determine the rate of flow of the given fluid by venturimeter.
11. Determine the pressure difference by simple and differential manometers.
12. Correlate falling factors and Reynolds Number using given pipe line assembly.
13. Determine the enlargement losses, contraction losses and friction losses in a fluid flowing
through a pipe.
14. Calculate the coefficient of discharge at orifice using orifice meter.
Books Recommended:
1. J.F.Richardson and J.M. Coulron: Chemical Engineering
2. Walter L. Badger and J.T. Banchero: Introduction to Chemical Engineering
3. Perry: Handbook of Chemical Engineering
4. Lauer & Heckmann: Chemical Engineering Techniques
5. Peters: Elementary Chemical Engineering
6. S.J. Carter: Tutorial Pharmacy
7. N.D.Bhatt: Elementary Engineering Drawing.
8. McCabe W.L. and Smith J.C. Unit Operation of Chemical Engineering Mc Graw Hill
International Book Co., London.
9. Cooper and Gunn’s Tutorial Pharmacy, CBS Publishers, New Delhi
ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY & HEALTH EDUCATION- II (PY-302)
1. Digestive system:
Gross anatomy and histology of the gastrointestinal system, Functions of its different
parts, Oral cavity, Oesophagus, Stomach, Pancreas, liver, gall bladder, small intestine,
large intestine.
Various gastrointestinal secretions, its regulation and their role in the absorption and
digestion of food.
Overview of Disorders of digestive system, dental caries disease, periodontal cirrhosis,
hepatitis, gallstones, anorexia, peptic ulcers, appendicitis, gastrointestinal tumors.
2. Central Nervous System:
Nevrohumoral transmission in the CNS
Organization of nervous systems. Histology and physiology of neurons.
Structure and function of brain and spinal cord, specialized function of cranial and spinal
nerves. Reflex action, Neurotransmitter in brain, Electroencephalogram.
Overview of CNS disorders : Parkinsorin’s disease, cerebral palsy, poliomyelitis
multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, dyslexia, Trigeminal neuralgia, headache, Reyes syndrome,
Alzheimer’s Disease, Neuritis, Sciatica.
3. The sensory, motor and integrative systems.
4. Autonomic Nervous system:
Structure and physiology of Autonomic nervous system (Sympathetic and
parasympathetic).
Visceral autonomic reflexes, control by higher centers
5. Urinary System:
Structure and functions of the kidney and urinary tract, Physiology of urine formation,
acid-base balance.
Overview of urinary system disorders : Gout, cystitis, nephrosis, Renal failure,
glomerulonephritis , Urinary tract infection.
6. Endocrine system:
Endocrine glands, chemistry of hormones, mechanism of hormonal action, control of
hormonal secretion (Feed back mechanism) Anatomy and physiology of Pituitary,
thyroid, Parathyroid, Adrenals, Pancreas, ovaries, testes, thymus, Pineal, their hormones
and fuctions.
Overview of endocrine system disorders : Pituitary dwarfism, giantism, acromegaly,
diabetes insipidus, cretinism, myxedema, exophthalmic goiter, aldosteronism, Addison’s
disease, Cushing’s syndrome, pheochromocytoma , Diabetes mellitus.
7. Reproductive system:
Structure and function of made reproductive system testes, ductus epididymis vas
deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate, gland, bulbourethral,
glands, penis, Hormones of male system and their regulation. Spermatogenesis, semen
Structure and function of female reproductive system, ovaries, uterine tubes, Vagina,
Vulva, mammary glands, Endocrine relations’ Menstrual and ovarian cycles Oogenesis,
coitus, Fertilization, pregnancy – its maintenance and parturition.
Overview of Reproductive system disorders : Sexually transmitted diseases, Gonorrhea,
Syphilis, Genital herpes, Trichomoniasis, Prostatis impotence, infertility, Menstrual,
abnormalities (Amenorrhea, dysmenorrheal) Ovarian cysts, endometriosis, cervical
cancer, prostate cancer, breast cancer.
8. Sense Organ:
Basic anatomy, Physiology of eye (Vision), ear (hearing), taste buds, nose (smell) and
skin (superficial receptors).
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
1. To study human digestive system with help of chart and models and study histology
of salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, Pancreas, liver, small intestine, large intentine.
2. To study human urinary system with help of chart and models study histology of
nephron, urinary bladder, Ureter.
3. To study male and female reproductive system with help of chart and models and study
histology of testes, ductus, epididymis, ovary, uterus, mammary glands.
4. To study brain and spinal cord with help of chart and models and study histology of
cerebrum, cerebellum, spinal cord.
5. To study structure and physiology of special senses.
6. To study structure and physiology of Eye.
7. To study structure and physiology of Ear.
8. To study structure and physiology of Skin.
9. To study structure and physiology of Taste buds.
10. To study structure and physiology of Nose.
11. To perform urine analysis for physiological (normal) constituent present in urine
sample
12. To study pathological (abnormal) constituent in the urine sample.
13. To perform quantitative test for presence of glucose in urine sample.
Books Recommended:
1. Gerard J. Tortora and Nicholas P. Anagnostakos; Principles of Anatomy and
physiology.Harper and Row publishers, New York.
2. Sujit K. Chaudhuri: Concise Medical Physiology.
3. Kathleen J.W., Wilson Ross and Wilson: Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness
4. Arthur C. Guyton: Textbook of Medical Physiology.
5. Cyril A. Keele, Erie Neil, Norman Joels and Samson Wrights: Applied Physiology
6. Chatterjee, C.C, Human Physiology, Medical allied agency, Calcutta.
7. Shalya, Subhas, Human Physiology CBS publisher Delhi.
8. Ross and Wilson, Human anatomy and Physiology, Churchill Livingstone London.
9. Chaurasia, B.D, Human anatomy, Regional and applied. , CBS publisher New Delhi
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY IV (ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II) - PY-303
1. Photochemistry and Pericyclic reaction:
Theory-energy transfer-characteristics of photoreactions – typical photoreaction.
Electrocyclic reaction–sigmatropic rearrangement cycloaddition reactions. Neighboring
group effect, Catalysis by transition metal complexes.
2. Heterocyclic Chemistry:
Nomenclature of Heterocycles:
Nomenclature (Hantzsch-Widman system) for monocyclic (three, four, five, six and large
membered), fused and bridged heterocycles.
Aromatic and Non-aromatic Heterocycles:
General chemical behaviour of aromatic heterocycles, classification (structural type),
Heteroaromatic reactivity and tautomerism in aromatic heterocycles, Strain–bond angle
and torsional strains and their consequences in small ring heterocycles
Synthesis, chemical reactivity and medicinal application of the following heterocycles
Three and four-membered heterocycles: Aziridines and azetidines
Five membered hetero cycles: Furan, thiophen, pyrrole, pyrazole, oxazole, imidazole,
triazole.
Benzo-Fused Five-Membered Heterocycles: Benzimidazole, benzthiazole and benztriazole.
Six-Membered Heterocycles with One, Two or More Heteroatoms: Pyridine and
Pyrimidine.
Fused heterocycles: Quinoline, isoquinoline, acridine, coumarins.
3. Organic Compounds with functional group containing nitrogen
Structure, nomenclature of nitro and cyano compounds.
Nitro compounds: Important methods of preparation, physical properties and chemical
reactions.
Cyanides and isocyanides: preparation, physical properties and chemical reactions.
4. Structure, Nomenclature and reactivity of Sulphur containing compounds
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
1. Synthesis and Characterization of – Benzthiazole.
2. Synthesis and Characterization of Quinoline.
3. Synthesis and Characterization of Benzimidazole.
4. Synthesis and Characterization of triazoles.
5. Synthesis and Characterization of pyrimidines.
6. Synthesis and Characterization of acridines.
7. Synthesis and Characterization of cuomarins.
8. Synthesis and Characterization of azipine.
9. Synthesis and Characterization of oxazole.
10. Synthesis and Characterization of picric acid.
11. Synthesis and Characterization of 3- nitro benzaldyhyde.
12. Synthesis and Characterization of 2 – mercapto oxadiazole.
13. Synthesis and Characterization of thiazolidinedione.
14. To perform the reduction of aromatic nitor group 2- amino group (Nitro benzene to
aniline, nitrobenzoic acid to amino benzoic acid, etc)
BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
1. The Chemistry of Heterocycles, T. Eicher and S. Hauptmann, Thieme.
2. Heterocyclic Chemistry, J.A. Joule, K. Mills and G.F. Smith, Chapman and Hall.
3. Heterocyclic Chemistry, T.L. Gilchrist, Longman Scietific Technical
4. Contemporay Heterocyclic Chemistry, G.R. Newkome and W.W. Paudler, Wiley-Inter
Science.
5. Heterocyclic Chemistry Vol. 1-3, R.R. Gupta, M. Kumar and V. Gupta, Springer Verlag
6. An introduction to the Heterocyclic Compounds, R.M. Acheson, John Wiley
7. Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry, A.R. Katritzky and C.W. Rees, eds. Pergamon
8. Natural Products: Chemistry and Biological Significance, J.Mann, R.S. Davidson, J.B.
9. Hobbs, D.V. Banthrope and J.B. Harborne, Longman, Essex.
10. Organic Chemistry, Vol 2, I.L. Finar, ELBS.
11. Stereoselective Synthesis: A Practical Approach, M. Nogradi, VCH
12. Name Reactions in Heterocyclic Chemistry by J. J. Li. Wiley, 2005.
13. Molecular Photochemistry, N.J. Turro, W.A. Benjamin
14. Introductory Photochemistry, A. Cox and T. Camp, McGraw Hill
15. Photochemistry, R.P. Kundall and A. Gilbert, Thomson Nelson
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY - PY 304
1. Introduction to the Science of Microbiology:
Historical development, contribution of great scientists and scope of microbiology.
2. Microbiology Taxonomy: Classification of Bacteria and Viruses
3. Identification of Microbes:
• Working of different types of microscopes, electron microscopy, stains and types of
staining techniques.
• Structure and Morphology of bacteria and viruses.
• Nutritional requirements, Cultivation and isolation of bacteria and viruses.
4. Microbial genetics and variation.
5. Control of microbes by physical and chemical methods:
a. Disinfection: factors influencing disinfection, dynamics of disinfection.
b. Disinfectants and antiseptics, and their evaluation
c. Sterilization: Different methods, Validation of sterilization methods and
equipments.
6. Sterility testing of pharmaceutical products.
7. Infection and factors influencing infection: Immunity, Primary and Secondary defensive
mechanism of body, Microbial resistance, Interferon.
8. Microbial diseases: Brief outline of communicable diseases. Their causative agents,
Mode of transmission and prevention – Chicken pox, Measles, influenza, Diphtheria,
Whooping, cough, Tulberculosis, Poliomyelitis, Hepatitis, Cholera, Typhoid, Food
poisoning, Helminthiasis, Malaria, Filariasis, Rabies, Trachoma, Tetanus, Syphilis,
Gonorrhoea and AIDS.
9. Microbial assay of antibiotics and vitamins.
10. Food spoilage and Preservation of food.
11. Sewage and Sewage disposal: Industrial Sewage, Sewage treatment methods, BOD,
COD etc.
LIST OF PRACTICALS
(All practicals are compulsory)
1. Study the motility of the given sample of microorganism by hanging drop technique.
2. Identify the given sample of organism by simple staining technique
3. Identify the given sample of organism by Gram staining technique
4. Identify the given sample of organism by negative staining.
5. Identify the bacteria by performing IMViC test.
6. Prepare various types of culture media (Nutrient broth, nutrient agar, fluid thioglycolate
media etc)
7. Prepare subculture of the given sample of microorganism by aseptic transfer technique.
8. Evaluate the given sample of disinfectant by R.W. Coefficient test.
9. Determine the sterility of the given sample by filtration method.
10. Determine the sterility of the given sample by direct inoculation method.
11. Evaluate the given sample of an antibiotic microbiologically by filter paper disc method.
12. Evaluate the given sample of an antibiotic microbiologically by cup plate method.
13. Assay the given sample of vitamin microbiologically.
.Books Recommended
1. W.B. Hugo and A.D. Russel: Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Blackwell Scientific publications,
Oxford London.
2. Malcolm Harris, Balliere Tindall and Cox: Pharmaceutical Microbiology.
3. Gilbert S.Banker and Christopher T. Rhodes: Modern Pharmaceutics.
4. Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences.
5. Pelczar and Reid: Microbiology.
6. Dawson and Mirne: Immunological and Blood products.
7. Rose: Industrial Microbiology.
8. Prescot and Dunn: Industrial Microbiology.
9. Probisher, Hinsdill et al: Fundamentals of Microbiology, 9th ed. Japan
10. Cooper and Gunn’s: Tutorial Pharmacy
11. Peppler: Microbial Technology.
12. I.P., B.P., U.S.P.- latest editions
13. Edward: Fundamentals of Microbiology
14. N.K.Jain: Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Vallabh Prakashan, Delhi
PHARMACOGNOSY-II (Theory) -PY 305
1. General methods of, isolations classification chemical properties and chemical tests and
systematic pharmacognostical studies of
a) Glycosides, and drugs belongs to this class: Liquorice, Ginseng, Dioscorea,
Sarasaparilla, Senega, Digitalis, Squill, Rhubarb, Cascara, Aloe, Senna, Psorelea, Gentian,
Saffron, Chirata, Quassia, Thevetia, Mustard, Picrorrhiza
b) Volatile oils and drugs belongs to this class: Dill, Fennel, Coriander, Caraway, Cassia
bark, Cinnamon bark, Clove, Nutmeg, Cardamom, Musk, Palmrosa, Gaultheria, Valerian, Black
Pepper, Lemon grass, Sandal wood Orange peel, Henna.
2. Enzymes, Biological sources, preparation, properties, identification tests and uses of Diastase,
Papain, Pepsin, Trypsin and Pancreatin.
3. Plant bitters and Sweetners.
4. Biological Source, identification characters chemical constituents and therapeutics uses of
traditional drugs like: Kantkari, Satavari, Guduchi, Punarnava, Chitrak, Apamarga, Gokhru,
Shankhpushpi, Adusa, Brahmi, Methi, Garlic Nagarmotha, Neem, Shilajit Kapur kachari, Acorus
5. The holistic concept of drug administration in Ayurvedic and Traditional system of medicine.
Introduction to preparations like Asava, Arishta, Tailas, Churnas, Lepas, Lehyas and Bhasmas
and their evaluation schemes.
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
1. Morphological identification of Senna pod, Squill Aloe, Senega
2. Morphological identification of Satavari, Guduchi, Apamarga Gokharu
3. Morphological identification of Nagarmotha, Neem, Garlic, Methi seed
4. Morphological identification of Nutmeg, Cardamom fruits and seeds.
5. Morphological and Microscopical identification of Senna leaf.
6. Morphological and Microscopical identification of Liquorice.
7. Morphological and Microscopical identification of Rhubarb.
8. Morphological and Microscopical identification of Dill & Fennel.
9. Morphological and Microscopical identification of Caraway & Coriander.
10. Morphological and Microscopical identification of Cinnamon bark & clove.
11. Identify the given mixture/sample of powder drug by morphological,
microscopical & chemical evaluation of senna cinnamon Rhubarb Coriander.
12. General studies of marketed formulations.
Books Recommended:
1. C.K. Kokate, Gokhale and Purohit, A Text Book of Phamacognosy, Nirali Prakashan,
Pune
2. S.S. Handa and V.K. Kapoor, Pharmacognosy, Vallabh Prakash, Delhi
3. G.E.Trease and W.C.Evans, Pharmacognosy (India Reprint J. P. Publication, Delhi)
4. T.E.Wallis, Text Book of Pharmacognosy, C.B.S. Publication, Delhi
5. V.E. Tylor, L.R.Brady & J.E. Robbers, Lea & Febiger Philadelphia, U.S.A.
6. C.K.Atal and B.M. Kapoor, Cultivation & Utilization of Aromatic Plants, Council of
Scientific Industrial Research (CSIR) New Delhi
7. Medicinal Plant Glycosides – Sim, Toranto
8. C.S.Shah & J.S.Quadry, A Text Book of Pharmacognosy

2009-07-21T05:07:00.000-07:00

Forever Friends

Sometimes in life,

you find a special friend;

Someone who changes your life

just by being part of it.

Someone who makes you laugh

until you can't stop;

Someone who makes you believe

that there really is good in the world.

Someone who convinces you

that there really is an unlocked doorjust

waiting for you to open it.

2009-07-15T08:39:00.000-07:00

KNOWLEDGE

A man of knowledge increage the strength

Brain power is better then muscle power

Dress does not give knowledge

Knowledge is better then wealth
You have to look after wealth knowledge looks after you

Knowledge is the body of culture,
Under standing is its soul

Profit is inherited, knowledge is not

Some knowledge comes from the head and some come from the heart

2009-07-12T08:19:00.000-07:00

FRIENDSHIP

"What is a friend? A single soul, dwelling in two bodies" - AristotleTrue friendship is perhaps the only relation that survives the trials and tribulations of time and remains unconditional.

A unique blend of affection, loyalty, love, respect, trust and loads of fun is perhaps what describes the true meaning of friendship. Similar interests, mutual respect and strong attachment with each other are what friends share between each other.

These are just the general traits of a friendship. To experience what is friendship, one must have true friends, who are indeed rare treasure.

Friendship is a feeling of comfort and emotional safety with a person. It is when you do not have to weigh your thoughts and measure words, before keeping it forth before your friend. It is when someone knows you better than yourself and assures to be your side in every emotional crisis.

It is when you can sleep fighting and get another morning with a better understanding. Friendship is much beyond roaming together and sharing good moments, it is when someone comes to rescue you from the worst phase of life. Friendship is eternal. Different people have different definitions of friendship. For some, it is the trust in an individual that he / she won't hurt you. For others, it is unconditional love.

There are some who feel that friendship is companionship. People form definitions based on the kind of experiences they have had. This is one relation that has been nurtured since time immemorial. There are famous stories about friends in mythologies of different religions all over the world. They say a person who has found a faithful friend has found a priceless treasure. Psychologically speaking, friendship may be defined as 'a dynamic, mutual relationship between two individuals.

As children become friends, they negotiate boundaries within which both partners function'. This helps them to function like healthy individuals in life as they learn to draw a line as and when needed in a relation. This greatly helps in the emotional development of an individual.

However, any relation needs constant nurturing and development from all the people that are involved in one. Friendship cannot survive if one person makes all the effort to sustain it without any mutual recognition from others. Since friendship starts the moment a child starts socializing, the kind of friends that the child chooses should be taken care of till the time he / she learns to differentiate between right and wrong. Wrong peers or lack of socializing can lead to severe psychological traumas and disorders, finally leading to social maladjustment. The correct peer group is essential for the development of the personality of a child.

Both positive and negative experiences refine the personality of the individual.

Thus it is essential that you find friends who are compatible with you on an emotional and psychological basis.

B.Pharma IInd Semester Revised syllabus

2009-06-02T06:54:00.001-07:00

Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)
B. PHARMA-II SEMESTER

ADVANCED MATHEMATICS PY-201
1. Differential equations and its Applications: Revision of integral calculus,
definition and formation of differential equations, equations of first order and first
degree, variable separable, homogeneous and linear differential equations and
equations reducible to such types, linear differential equations of order greater
than one with constant coefficients, complementary function and particular
Integral, Simultaneous linear differential equations, pharmaceutical applications.
2. Laplace Transforms: Definition, transforms of elementary functions, properties
of linearity and shifting, inverse Laplace transforms, transforms of derivatives,
solution of ordinary and simultaneous differential equations.
3. Biometrics: Significant digits and rounding of numbers, data collection, random
and non-random sampling methods, sample size, data organization, diagrammatic
representation of data, bar, pie, 2-D and 3-D diagrams, measures of central
tendency, measures of dispersion, standard deviation, standard error of means,
coefficient of variations, confidence (fiducial) limits.
4. Probability: probability and events, Bayes theorem, probability theorems,
probability distributions, elements of binomal and poisson distribution, normal
distribution curve and properties,
5. Correlation and regression: Method of least squares, statistical inference,
Student’s and paired t-test, F-test and elements of ANOVA, kurtosis and
skewness, Applications of statistical concepts in Pharmaceutical Sciences.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
1. Paria G., Ordinary Differential Equations with Laplace transform, Scholar’s
Publications, Indore.
2. Paria G., Differential Calculus, Scholar’s Publications, Indore.
3. Paria G., Integral Calculus, Scholar’s Publications, Indore.
4. Paria G., Statistics and Stochastic Process Part I and II, Scholar’s Publications,
Indore.
5. Baisnab A, and M Jas, Introduction to statistics.
PHARMACEUTICS-II PY-202 (PHYSICAL PHARMACY)
1. Micromeritics and Powder Rheology: Introduction, Particle size and size
distribution: Average particle size, particle size distribution, number and weight
distribution, particle number; Methods for determination particle size: optical
microscopy, sieving, sedimentation; introduction to latest technique in particle
analysis Particle volume measurement; Particle shape and surface area: particle
shape, specific surface; Methods for determining surface area: adsorption method,
air permeability method, pore size; Derived properties of powders: Porosity,
packing arrangement, densities of powder, bulkiness and flow properties,
Compaction: Compressed tablet, Pharmaceutical application.
2. Solubility and Distribution Phenomenon: General principles: the phase rule,
solubility expressions; Solvent-solute interaction: polar solvents, nonpolar
solvents, semipolar solvents; Solubility of gases in liquids: Effect of pressure,
temperature, salting out, effect of chemical reaction; Solubility of liquids in
liquids: Ideal and real solution, complete miscibility, partial miscibility, influence
of foreign substance, three component systems, dielectric constant and solubility,
molecular connectivity, molecular surface are and solubility; Solubility of solids
in liquids: Ideal solutions, Phase diagrams and the ideal solubility equation,
nonideal solution, extended Hildebrand solubility approach, salvation and
association in solutions of polar compounds, solubility and the heat of solution,
solubility of strong electrolytes, solubility of slightly soluble electrolytes,
solubility of weak electrolyte, the influence of solvents on the solubility on the
solubility of drugs, combined effect of pH and solvents, influence of surfactants;
Distribution of solutes between immiscible solvents.
3. Surface and Interfacial Phenomenon: Liquid interfaces: surface and interfacial
tensions, surface free energy. Measurement of surface and interfacial tensions:
Capillary rise method, The DuNouy Ring Method. Adsorption at liquid interfaces:
surface active agents, Systems of Hydrophile - Lipofile classification, Type of
mono-layers at liquid interfaces. Adsorption at solid interface, the solid-gas
interface, the solid-liquid interface, Activated Charcoal, Wetting, Application of
surface-active agents, Electric properties of interfaces.
4. Diffusion and Dissolution: Concept of diffusion, Study state diffusion: Fick’s first
law, Fick’s second law, study state, Procedure and apparatus. Dissolution:
dissolution rate, dissolution of tablets, capsules and granules, Powder Dissolution:
The Hixson-Crowell cube Root Law. Drug release: Drugs in polymer matrices,
release from granular matrices, multilayer diffusion, membrane control and
diffusion layer control phenomenon, diffusion principle in biological system.
5. Viscosity and Rheology: Newtonian Systems: Newton’s Law of flow; kinematics
viscosity; Temperature dependence and theory of viscosity. Non-Newtonian
Systems: plastic flow, pseudoplastic and dilatant flow. Thixotropy: measurement
thixotropy, Bulges and spurs, Negative thixotropy, Thixotropy in formulations.
Determination of Rheologic properties: choice of viscometer, Capillary
viscometer, Falling sphere viscometer, Cup and bob viscometer, Cone and plate
Viscometer, Pharmaceutical application of Rheology.
6. Complexation and protein binding: Classification of complexes, methods of
preparation and analysis, Pharmaceutical applications. Protien binding: Binding
equilibria, equilibrium dialysis and ultrafilration, dyanamic dialysis, hydrophobic
interaction, self-association, factors affecting complexation and protein binding.
7. Buffered and isotonic solutions: The buffer equation: Common Ion Effect and the
Buffer Equation for a weak Acid and its slat, The buffer equation for a weak base
and its salt. Factors influencing the pH of buffer solutions. Buffer capacity:
Calculation of buffer capacity. Buffer in pharmaceutical systems and biologic
system: In vivo biologic buffer systems, Pharmaceutical buffers, influence of
buffer capacity and pH on Tissue Irritation, pH and Solubility. Buffered isotonic
solutions: Measurement of tonicity, tonicity calculations, Methods of adjusting
isotonicity and pH.
8. Colloids: Introduction to the dispersed System, Types of colloidal systems, Optical
properties of the colloids, kinetic properties of the colloids, electrical properties of
the colloids, Solubilization, Pharmaceutical application of the colloids, advanced
thermodynamics of Micellization.
9. Coarse Dispersion: Suspension: Interfacial properties of suspended particles,
Settling in suspensions: theory of sedimentation, effect of Brownian Movement,
Sedimentation of flocculated particles, Sedimentation parameters. Formulation of
suspensions: Wetting of particles, Controlled flocculation, Flocculation in
Structured Vehicles, Rheologic consideration, Preparation of suspensions,
Physical stability of suspensions. Emulsions: Emulsion types, Pharmaceutical
applications, Theories of emulsification, Physical stability of emulsions,
Preservation of emulsions, Rheologic properties of emulsions. Semi-solids: Gels,
Syneresis and swelling, Classification of Pharmaceutical semisolids, Hydrophilic
properties of Semisolids, Rheologic properties of semisolids, Universe of Topical
Medications. Drug Kinetics in Coarse disperse system, Drug Diffusion in Coarse
Disperse Systems.
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
(Minimum fifteen experiments should be performed in the semester. Student
should aware with safety parameters and handling of chemicals related to
following experiments)
1. Determine the particle size and particle size distribution in the given sample of
powder by optical microscopy.
2. Determine particle size distribution of the given granules by sieving method.
3. Determine the following derived properties of the given powdered sample
(a) Flow property (b) Bulk density (c) Granule density
(d) True density (e) Porosity (f) Carr’s Index
(g) hussnor’s retio
4. Determine the surface tension of the given sample by drop count and drop weight
Method.
5. Determine the Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC) of the given surfactant by
Surface tension method.
6. Determine partition coefficient of the given drug between benzene and water or octanol
and water system
7. Plot phase diagram of phenol-water system
8. Determine the effect of salt on the solubility of given drug.
9. Determine the percent composition of an unknown solution of glycerin in water using
Ostwald’s viscometer
10. Study the effect of shear rate on the flow of 1% methyl cellulose solution.
11. Formulate suspension of the given drug and evaluate it for sedimentation parameters.
12. Study the effect of thickening agent concentration on the sedimentation of the suspension
of the given drug.
13. Prepare acetate buffer and compare theoretical pH value with the experimental value.
14. Determine the viscosity of the following Newtonian and Non-Newtonian system
(a) Water (b) Simple syrup I.P.
(c) Diclofenac gel (d) Tooth paste
15. Determine the HLB value of the given surfactant
16. Evaluate the given sample of emulsion on the following parameters
(a) Type of emulsion (b) Globule size distribution
(c) Physical stability (d) Viscosity
17. Determine the optimum concentration of Bentonite required for the maximum
physical stability of calamine lotion.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
1. Lachman, L., Lieberman, H.A. and Kanig, J.L., The Theory and Pratice of
Industrial Pharmacy, Lea and Philadelphia.
2. Allen, L.V., Popovich, N.G., Ansel, H.C., Ansel’s Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms
and Drug Delivery Systems, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
3. Banker G.S. and Rhode C.T., Modern Pharmaceutics, Marcell Decker Inc., New
York.
4. Aulton, M.E., Pharmaceutics The Science of Dosage Form Design, Churchill
Livingstone, London.
5. Carter, S.J., Cooper and Gunn’s Tutorial Pharmacy, CBS Publishers and
Distributors, New Delhi.
6. Martin A., Physical Pharmacy, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
7. Gennaro, A.R., Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, Lippincott
Williams and Wilkins.
PHARMACEUTICAL CHEMISTRY-III PY-203 (ORGANIC-I)
1. Structure and Properties: Electronegativity, Polarity, Resonance;
Electrophiles/Nucleophiles, Orbitals, ð-Bonds, Hybridization and Shape,
Isomerism, Polarity, Intermolecular Forces, isotope effects and isotopic labelling.
2. Reactive Intermediates: Stability and reactivity of Radicals, Cations, Anions,
Nitrene and Nitrenium ion
3. Stereochemistry: Stereo-isomerism, classification and Nomenclature, Optical
activity, Chirality, R/S Classification of Chiral Carbons. Miscellaneous
Stereochemistry, Diastereomers; Racimic modification, Resolution of racimic
mixtures.
4. Hydrocarbons: Alkanes and cycloalkanes: Nomenclature, Physical and chemical
properties of alkanes, Conformations and Stability of Acyclic Alkanes and
Cycloalkanes.
Alkenes and alkynes: Nomenclature, Physical and Chemical properties of
alkenes, isomerism, and general methods of preparation.
Aromatic hydrocarbons: Benzene and its homologues (Polynuclear
compounds), nomenclature, sources of aromatic hydrocarbons, structure of
benzene, chemical reaction of benzyne-mechanism and SNAr Mechanism of
nucleophilic substitution. Directive influence of substituents and their effect on
reactivity.
Dienes and the Allyl system: Conjugation, Reactivity.
5. Organic compounds with functional groups containing halogens (X):
Nomenclature, Structure, Properties, Reactivity of Alkyl Halides (haloalkanes and
haloarenes): The SN2 and SN1 Substitution Reaction, The E1 and E2 Elimination
Reactions, Substitution vs. Elimination reaction, reactivity of C-X bond in
haloalkanes and haloarenes
6. Organic compounds with functional groups containing oxygen (Part I-):
Alcohols: Nomenclature, Synthesis, reactivity of different Alcohols; conversion
of Alcohols to Tosylates or Halides.
Phenols: Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties; chemical reactivity of phenols in electrophilic substitutions, acidic
nature of phenol.
Ethers: electronic structure, structure of functional group, nomenclature,
important methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, some
commercially important compounds.
7. Organic compounds with functional groups containing oxygen (Part II):
Aldehydes and ketones : Electronic structure of carbonyl group, nomenclature,
important methods of preparation, physical properties and chemical reactions,
relative reactivity of aldehydic and ketonic groups, aldol condensation.
nucleophilic addition reaction to >C=O groups.
Carboxylic acids: Electronic structure of -COOH, Nomenclature, important
methods of preparation, physical properties and effect of substituents on á-carbon
on acid strength, chemical reactions.
Derivatives of carboxylic acids: Electronic structure of acid chloride, acid
anhydride, ester and amide groups, Nomenclature, important methods of
preparation, comparative reactivity of acid derivatives.
8. Organic Compounds with functional group containing Nitrogen: Structure,
Nomenclature of Amino and Diazo Compounds.
Amines: Primary, secondary and tertiary amines, a general awareness, important
methods of preparation, physical properties, basic character of amines, chemical
reactions.
Diazonium salts: Preparation, chemical reaction and uses of Benzene diazonium
chloride. Some commercially important nitrogen containing carbon compounds,
(Aniline, TNT)
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
1. Purify the given organic compounds by distillation.
2. Purify the given organic compounds by recrystillazation.
3. Introduction to the use of stereo models.
4. Synthesis, Purification, Characterization (by using Solubility, Melting Point,
T.L.C. and percentage purity) of organic compounds and percent yield
calculations of the following compounds:
a) 2, 4, 6-trinitro phenol (Picric acid) from phenol
b) Iodoform from ethyl alcohol
c) 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline from aniline
d) 2, 4, 6-tribromo phenol from phenol
e) Phenylbutazone from phenol
f) Benzanilide from aniline
g) Phthalidimide from phthalic anhydride
h) Thiourea
i) Phenyl urea
j) Flourescein
k) Methly orange
l) Methly red
BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
1. Organic Chemistry, R.T. Morrison and R.N. Boyd, 6th Edition, New York.
2. Organic Chemistry, T.W.G. Solomons, 8th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc
3. Advanced Organic Chemistry, J. March, Reaction Mechanisms and Structure,
John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.
4. Mechanisms and structure in Organic Chemistry, E.S. Gould, Hold Rinchart and
Winston, New York.
5. Advanced Organic Chemistry, Reaction Mechanisms, Bernard Miller, 2nd
edition, Pearson education Ptc. Ltd. Singapore.
6. Named Organic Reactions, Thomas Lane & Andreas Plagens, 2nd edition, John
Wiley and Sons, N.Y).
7. Organic Chemistry Finar Vol-1 & 2.
8. Structure and Mechanism in Organic Chemistry, Ingold, C. K., Cornell
University.
9. Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds, Eliel, E.L., McGraw Hill, New York.
10. Elements of Stereochemistry, Eliel, E.L., Wiley, New York.
PHARMACOGNOSY-I PY-204
1. Study of following families with spatial reference to medicinally important plants;
apocyanaceae, solanoceae, graminae, labiatae, cruciferae,
papaveraceae,umbelifereae, leguminosae, rubiaceae and liliaceae.
2. Definition, history, scope and development of Pharmacognosy. Scheme for
pharmacognostical study of crude drug. Sources of crude drugs and methods of
their classification. Traditional and alternative systems of medicines.
3. Cultivation collection, drying, natural drying, artificial drying, processing and
storage of crude drugs. Factors affecting cultivation of medicinal plants like
climate, altitude, temperature, humidity, rainfall, soils, fertilizers and mannures.
4. Pest control and natural pest control agents. Methods of pest control like
mechanical, agricultural, biological chemical etc.
5. Quality Control of Crude Drugs: Different types of Adulteration and their
evaluation using various methods like Organoleptic, Microscopic, Physical,
Chemical, and Biological, Quantitative microscopy.
6. General methods of their isolation, classification, properties and systematic
pharmacognostic study of –
a. Carbohydrates, and drugs belonging to this class like; Agar, Gaur gum,
Acacia, Ghatti gum Honey, Isapgol, Starch, Sterculia, Tragacanth, Bael,
Pectin,
b. Fixed oil, fats and waxes and drugs belonging to this class likes; Castor oil,
Olive oil Linseed oil, Karanj Oil, Neem Oil, Beeswax, Cocoa butter,
Hydnocarpus oil, Kokum butter, Cod-liver oil, Shark liver oil, Woolfat, Lard,
Yellow bees wax, Carnauba wax
c. Resins and resin combinations and drugs belonging to this class like;
Podophyllum, Tolu & Peru balsam, Turmeric, Ginger, Ipomoea, Myroballan,
Asafoetida, Benzoin, colophonoy. Capsicum, Canabis, Myrrh, Guggul,
Kaladana,
d. Tannins and drugs belonging to this class like Myrobalan, Bahera, Arjuna
bark, Ashoka bark, Amla, black & Pale catechu.
e. Fibres: Plant fibres, Animal fibre, Synthetic fibres, Minral fibre. Flax, Cotton,
Silk, Wool.
f. Pharmaceutical aids like; Talc, Kaolin, Bentonite, Gelatin, Klesalghur,
Asbestose.
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
(Student should perform Minimum fifteen experiments from following)
1. Study of different types of microscopes, camara lucida.
2. Morphological identification of following drugs Bael, Capsicum, Kaladana,
catechu, guggul, honey.
3. Morphological identification of following drugs Arjuna bark, ashoka bark. Amla.
Ghatugum and Bahera
4. Perform the morphological, microscopic and chemical evaluation "Ginger".
5. Perform morphological, microscopic and chemical evaluation of "Turmeric".
6. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of "Myroballan".
7. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of "Agar and Acacia".
8. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of "Tragacanth".
9. Perform morphological, microscopic and chemical evaluation of "Isapgol".
10. Perform morphological, microscopic and chemical evaluation of "Starches obtain from potato,
rice, maize and wheat".
11. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of "Asafoetida".
12. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of "Castor oil, linseed oil, olive oil, cod-liver
oil".
13. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of neem oil, coca butter and wool fat.
14. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of lard, bees wax and carnauba.
15. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of "Bees wax".
16. Perform morphological and chemical evaluation of "Benzoin".
17. Perform morphological, microscopic and chemical evaluation of "nylon, Silk and Cotton".
18. Perform morphological, microscopic and chemical evaluation of "Talc and Podophyllum".
19. Perform morphological, microscopic and chemical evaluation of "Peru and Tolu Balsam".
20. Identify the given mixture/sample of powder drugs by morphological microscopical and chemical
evaluation.
BOOKS RECOMMENDED:
1. Text Book of Pharmacognosy – C.S.Shah & J.S.Quadry
2. Text Book of Pharmacognosy – T.E. Wallis
3. Pharmacognosy – Trease & Evans
4. Pharmacognosy – Brady & Taylor
5. Text Book of Pharmacognosy – V.K. Kapoor & S.S.Handa
6. Pharmacognosy – C.K.Kokate, A.P.Purohit, S.B.Gokhale.
ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALTH EDUCATION–PY-205
Scope of anatomy and physiology and basic terminology used in these subjects.
1. Structure of cell, its components and their function:
2. Elementary Tissues of the Human Body: Epithelial, connective, muscular and
nervous tissues; their sub-types and characteristics.
3. Skeletal System: Structure, composition and functions of skeleton, Classification
of joints, Types of movement at joint, disorders of joints.
4. Skeletal Muscles: Their gross anatomy, physiology of muscle contraction,
physiological properties of skeletal muscle and their disorders.
5. Haemopoietic System : Composition and functions of blood and its elements, their
disorders, blood groups and their significance, mechanism of coagulation;
disorders of platelets and coagulation.
6. Lymph and lymphatic system: Composition, formation and circulation of lymph,
disorders of lymph and lymphatic system. Basic physiology and functions of
spleen.
7. Cardiovascular System: Basic anatomy of the heart, physiology of heart, blood
vessels and circulation. Basic understanding of cardiac cycle, heart sounds and
electrocardiogram. Blood pressure and its regulation. Brief outline of
cardiovascular disorders like; hypertension, hypotension, arteriosclerosis, angina,
myocardial infraction, congestive heart failure and cardiac arrhythmias.
8. Respiratory System: Anatomy of respiratory organs, Functions of respiration,
Mechanism and regulation of respiration, Respiratory volumes and vital capacity
9. Health Education: First aid: emergency treatment of shock, snake bites, burns,
poisoning, fractures and resuscitation methods.
LIST OF PRACTICALS:
(Student should perform all the following experiments)
1. Determine RBC count of the given blood sample
2. Determine WBC count of the given blood sample
3. Determine differential WBC count of the given blood sample
4. Determine platelets count of the given blood sample
5. Determine hemoglobin count of the given blood sample
6. Determine clotting time of the given blood sample.
7. Determine erythrocyte sedimentation rate of the given blood sample
8. Osmotic fragility of the blood.
9. Determine blood group.
10. Study of epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue using slide.
11. Study human skeletal system with the help of chart, model and histological slides.
12. STUDY of human cardiovascular system with the help of chart, model and
histological slides.
13. Record of blood pressure.
14. To understand ECG, PQRST waves and their signifance.
15. Study of human respiratory system with the help of chart, model and histological
slides.
16. Study of lymphatic system with the help of chart, model and histological slides.

Best Friends Forever

2009-04-30T02:12:00.000-07:00

Best Friends Forever
True friendship is found mostly in the male genre because of their proclivity to know when to shut the door or one thing and to start another. That is the great thing about being practical or pragmatic. If a man does not readily see that something is going to work out between two people, he just lets go. He does not drag a relationship out and then blame themselves for the breakup. So true friendship definitely is about the genders.
Women are emotional and may call you a friend one moment and the second moment wants to pull your hair out. That is the woman's perogative to act in the moment either out of love or rage just as long as her emotions are out there and you get exactly how she feels about you.
Aside from the obvious difference in the personalities of men and women, true friendships on rare occasions do bloom between a man and a woman, a woman and another woman and friends to friends. However when the word true is added to the prefix of the root wood love then the definition takes on a totally different characteristic. A true friendship is found more often than not between two men than two women because of the doctrine of power.
Men in power generally share equally while women are caty and a bit jealous if one is forging ahead of the other. This is because women are still deemed the weaker sex even in the light of women liberty movements and in their younger years they have to fight each other to get the males attention. Young women may not realize it but when they wear the top fashions and make themselves beautiful with condiments of cosmetics, they are fighting for a man's attention. A few women may say that they do it for themselves which is fine and dandy however, you will probably be speaking to a mature women instead of a young woman out seeking male companionship.
Women fighting is not on the same playing field as men. Women are fighting to get the man's attention with her beauty, brains, poise, looks and personality. In these modern times, as it is still the male who actually gets to choose who he is going to spend the rest of his life with, he gets to make the selection. While this process is going on there is no room for true friendship. A quick hello and goodbye in passing but two women getting together to pit for one man is unreal. There is bound to be a word far removed from friendship and that is enemy terrritory.
As a woman grows older, she matures to look to herself as her best friend and to be careful who she brings into her cozy corner. The man, however, as he matures is still bringing buddies over for dinner or catching a football games with his true friends. These are his true friends because they are sharing in his company. There is no need for a man to get emotional about a secret that linked out among his friends because most of these men will understand that it was just a leak of information that had no bearing on his friendship with the person.
A woman may not have a lot of true friends but she is in a better position to describe what true love details than a man. The man experiences true friendship yet it is the woman with her delicate nature who can explain verbally what true friendship is. Now if only she can get a smidgen of true friendship from the men's corner of the room. Her soft nature makes it easy for her to understand true friendship though it will be rare that she gets to transform it into love.
A man on the other hand has a more pragmatic way of describing true friendship just as a friendship plain, direct, simple and practical. He would probably say that a friendship is a friendship and the word true have nothing to do with it. In his common sense way of thinking the man's take on friendship may be that there is no such thing as a fake, false or pretend friendship.
Having explained the differences of the sexes betwee friendship and real friendship, let's add one other element to this article about true friendship and that word is empathy. Empathy is when you literally step in the other person's shoes in this case a friend's shoes and feel the exact same way that he or she feels about their present situation. Empathy is genderless and is the simple scientific element that definds true friendship. If you are able to step into the other person's shoes and genuinely feel what he or she is going through then you are a true friend.
As a true friend, you are not looking for a reciprocal because you are only concentrating on what makes the other person happy.
That is a simple and direct explanation of what true friendship is and your chances of finding true friendship should not be your goal in getting involved in a relationship. A true friend is there for the other person and do not look for a return of investment of their feelings of empathy. The odd thing about giving is that when you give you do not think about what you are going to get in return. The act of giving is such a good feeling of true friendship that the reward in in the giving.
To sum this article up about true friendship, men will find true friendship faster than a woman because of their general constitution of being the go-to person equipped with something that is not always found in women and that is pragmatism or just being practical instead of emotional. True friendship encompasses the word empathy meaning that you are able to feel where the other person is coming from and is there in time of need and in time of happiness.
Giving is what people do out of true friendship and the task of giving have not reciprocation. Giving people in a true friendship should not be looking for a payback for their empathy and genuine concern for another.
True friendship just like true love is hard to find

INTRODUCTION TO AROMATIC WATERS

2009-01-29T08:09:00.000-08:00

Aromatic waters are clear aqueous solution saturated with volatile Oils (e.g. rose oil, Peppermint oil, orother aromatic or volatile substances eg. camphor. Their odours and taste are of those of the drugs or
volatile substances from which they are prepared.
Aromatic waters may be used for perfuming, . avoring or for special purposes for eg.
1. Camphor water has been used as the vehicle in ophthalmic solutions owning to its ability to contribute
refreshing, stimulating effect to the preparation.
2. Hamamelis water known as witch hazel is employed as a rub, perfume and as an astringent in
various cosmetic preparations, particularly in after-shave lotions.

1.Distillation Method:

The distillation method involves the placing of the coarsely ground odoriferous portion of the plant
or drug from which the aromatic water is to be prepared in a suitable still, with suf. cient puri. ed
water. Most of the volume of water is then distilled. The excess oils collected with the distillate rises
to the top of the aqueous product and are removed. The remaining aqueous solutions, saturated
with volatile material require clari. cation by . ltration.

2. Solution Method:

Aromatic water is prepared by intermittently shaking 2ml (if liquid) or 2gm (if solid) of the volatile
substance with 1000ml of puri. ed water in suitable container for period of 15 minutes. After the
period of agitation the mixture is set aside for 12 hours or longer to permit the excess oil and the
solid substance to settle. Without further agitation the mixture is passed through a wetted . lter
paper and puri. ed water added as needed to bring the volume of the . ltrate upto the prescribed
quantity.

3.Alternative solution Method:

By this method the volatile oil or suitably comminuted aromatic solid is thoroughly incorporated
with 15gms of talc and to this mixture is added 1000ml of puri. ed water. The resulting slurry is
thoroughly agitated several times for the period of 30 minutes and then . ltered.
Preparation of concentrated Aromatic water:
These products are alcoholic non aqueous preparations containing 2% of volatile oils They are forty
times stronger than the ordinary aromatic waters. Many volatile oils contain aromatic part and non-aromatic
part. The aromatic portion is much more soluble in a weak alcohol than the non-aromatic portion.
Hence when a solution of the oil in 90% alcohol is diluted with a limited amount of water the aromatic portion
of the oil remains in solution while the non-aromatic portion is precipitated off, separating as an oily
layer. Therefore 50gms of talc is added for 1000ml of preparation which acts as a distributing agent, and
will absorbs the non-aromatic part. The solution is agitated and set aside for a few hours and . ltered.
Storage: Aromatic water deteoriate with time and it should be made in small quantities and protected
from intense light and excessive heat and stored in airtight, light resistance container.
Note for teacher: Any other of. cial aromatic water can be done beside the preparation given in the
manual for these experiments

1 Title: To prepare, evaluate and submit 100ml of Chloroform Water I.P. by Simple Solution Method.
(Read the Introduction of Aromatic Waters.)

2.purpose Different types of solutions, volumetric measurement

3.New concepts: Proposition 1: Pharmaceutical Aid

Preparation used as an excipient or base or vehicle for formulation of other pharmaceutical
preparations.

Proposition 3: Storage: Aromatic waters are stored in air tight, light resistant container.

4 Apparatus: Glass Beaker (250 ml), Volumetric Cylinder (100 ml), Volumetric Pipette (1ml).
5 Step wise procedure:

It is saturated solution of chloroform in puri. ed water .The solubility of chloroform is 1 in 800 parts
of water.
1. Measure the required quantity of chloroform.
Pharmaceutics - I Experiment No. 3
2. Add suf. cient quantity of puri. ed water to make the required volume with constant stirring
so that chloroform gets uniformly mixed.
Dose: 15 to 30 ml
Category: Pharmaceutical Aid.
Storage: store in airtight container in cool place away from light.

7 Labeling of formulation:

(Students shall write all aspects of labeling in the space provided below.)

8 Observation and evaluation:

9 Result:

…………ml of ………………………………………………………………………….. preparation is
submitted in ……………………………………………. container with neat label.

2009-01-29T08:05:00.000-08:00

CALAMINE LOTION USP

FORMULA
CALAMINE :80g
Zinc oxide 80g
Glycerin 20ml
Bentonite magma 250mL
Calcium hydroxide q.s. 1000mlTopical solution
PROCEDURE:
Dilute the bentonite magma with an equal volume of calcium hydroxide topical solution mix the power intimately with the glycerin and about 100ml of the diluted magma .triturating until a smooth ,uniform paste is formed .gradually in corporate the remainder of the diluted magma .finally add enough calcium hydroxide topical solution to make 1000ml and shake well .if a more viscous consistency in the lotion to not more than 400ml
Many investigator have studied calamine lotion ,and this has led to the satisfying the collective needs of all dermatologists
THEORY:
A lotion is a low- to medium-viscosity, topical preparation intended for application to unbroken skin; creams and gels have a higher viscosity. Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. Lotions are usually applied to external skin with bare hands, a clean cloth, cotton wool or gauze; creams and gels usually only with one's fingers or palms. Many lotions, especially Hand Creams and Face cream are formulated not as a medicine delivery system, but simply to smooth and soften the skin— these are particularly popular with the aging and aged demographic groups, and in the case of face usage, can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases.The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the aquous and oily phases, an emulgent to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. A wide variety of other ingredients such as fragnances, glycerol, petrolium jelly, dyes, preservatives proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.
USES:
Calamine is a mixture of ZINC OXIDE (ZnO) with about 0.5% IRON OXIDE(Fe2O3). CALAMINE is the main ingredient in calamine lotion and is used as an ANTIPRURITIC (anti-itching agent) to treat mild pruritic conditions such as SUNBURN , ECZEMA , RASHES, POISON IVY , CHICKEN POX , INSECT bites and stings.It is also used as a mild ANTISEPTIC to prevent infections that can be caused by scratching the affected area, and an ASTRINGENT to dry weeping or oozing BLISTERS and ACNE ABSCESSES. IT ALSO ACT AS SOOTHING,SMOOTHING AND MOISTURING AGENT AND GIVES PROTECTION FROM SUNBURN

Remington sciences & practice page no 772-773

2009-01-29T08:00:00.000-08:00

CALAMINE LOTION IP

FORMULA
CALAMINE : 15.0 GRAMS.
ZINC OXIDE : 5.0 GRAMS.
BENTUNITE : 3.0 GRAMS.
SODIUM CITRATE : 0.5 GRAMS.
LIQUIFIED PHENOL : 0.5 ML.
GLYCERINE : 5.0 ML.
ROSE WATER : 0.02 ML.
DISTILLED WATER : UPTO 100.0 ML.

PROCEDURE:
FIRST TAKE THE CALAMINE ABOUT 15 GMS IN A MORTAR AND THEN TAKE ZINC OXIDE AND MIX WELL IN A MORTAR, THIRDLY,TAKE BENTUNITE AND MIX IT WELL. TAKE SODIUM CITRATE IN A SMALL BEAKER AND MIX IT WITH 30 ML OF DISTILLED WATER AND POUR THE SOLUTION IN A MORTAR GENTLY AND MIX IT WILL TILL ALL INGERDIENTS WILL BE SEEN IN A FINE POWEDERY AND SMOOTH PASTE. AFTRE THAT, POUR GLYCERINE DROP BY DROP AND ALSO POUR ROSE WATER GENTLY. LASTLY, TAKE A DISTILLED OR PURIFIED WATER IN A MEASURING CYLINDER ABOUT UPTO 100 ML AND POUR 100 ML OF DISTILLED WATER IN A MORTAR AND KEEP IN A CLOSED BOTTLE. SO YOUR CALAMINE LOTION WILL BE READY. SHAKE WELL BEFORE USE.
THEORY:
A lotion is a low- to medium-viscosity, topical preparation intended for application to unbroken skin; creams and gels have a higher viscosity. Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. Lotions are usually applied to external skin with bare hands, a clean cloth, cotton wool or gauze; creams and gels usually only with one's fingers or palms. Many lotions, especially Hand Creams and Face cream are formulated not as a medicine delivery system, but simply to smooth and soften the skin— these are particularly popular with the aging and aged demographic groups, and in the case of face usage, can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases.The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the aquous and oily phases, an emulgent to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. A wide variety of other ingredients such as fragnances, glycerol, petrolium jelly, dyes, preservatives proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.
USES:
Calamine is a mixture of ZINC OXIDE (ZnO) with about 0.5% IRON OXIDE(Fe2O3). CALAMINE is the main ingredient in calamine lotion and is used as an ANTIPRURITIC (anti-itching agent) to treat mild pruritic conditions such as SUNBURN , ECZEMA , RASHES, POISON IVY , CHICKEN POX , INSECT bites and stings.It is also used as a mild ANTISEPTIC to prevent infections that can be caused by scratching the affected area, and an ASTRINGENT to dry weeping or oozing BLISTERS and ACNE ABSCESSES. IT ALSO ACT AS SOOTHING,SMOOTHING AND MOISTURING AGENT AND GIVES PROTECTION FROM SUNBURN

STDs/AIDS

2009-01-27T08:44:00.000-08:00

STDs/AIDS
INTRODUCTION:
"It is estimated that by the end of 20th century there were 40 million people infected with HIV all over the world and India has been leading with highest number of cases (ranging from 10-20 million). We may not be infected but will definitely be affected indirectly by it. Hence it is a duty of every citizen of India to have detailed knowledge about this disease".
Due to lack of knowledge about AIDS people have fear in their mind against the victims of this disease. Because of fear of social boycott, AIDS patients and their relatives hide their HIV status. Many doctors (due to fear of getting infection) also refuse to treat these patients. There is danger of AIDS for everybody and only thing that can save us is to be completely informed.
AIDS is
Acquired – must do something to contract
Immune – ability to fight off infectious agents
Deficiency – lack of
Syndrome – cluster of symptoms that are Characteristic for a disease
HIV is:
Human – isolated to the human species
Immuno-Deficiency – Lacking the ability to fight off infectious agents
Virus – a disease causing agent
How Hiv infect
AIDS is caused by HIV, a very fragile RNA type of retrovirus, which like any other microorganism lives inside the living cells of the body. Outside body it doesn’t survive for more than half and hour.
There are two types of HIV virus, i.e. HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is present all over the world and in India more than 80% people are affected by it. HIV-2 is mainly found in Africa and also presents in India. Some people are infected with both the viruses. People only infected with HIV-2 live longer than those infected with HIV-1 and chances of transmission of HIV-2 from mother to child are very rare.
Once in body, HIV attacks CD4 type of White Blood Cells (WBCs) in blood and gradually kills them.

These CD4 type of WBC helps us to fight against various infections.
Once they are destroyed our body’s resistance to fight infections goes down and person suffers from lots of infections.
This end stage of HIV infection is called AIDS. It takes many years for AIDS to develop and till that time infected person usually remains healthy.
HOW DOES HIV SPREAD
Infected person’s blood, semen, vaginal fluid are rich in HIV. However tears, saliva, sweat or urine do not pose any danger?
HIV is transmitted by:
· Unprotected sexual intercourse with infected person (either heterosexual or homosexual)
· Transfusion of infected blood or blood products
· Infected mother to her baby during pregnancy, birth process and through breast – feeding
· Use of infected needles and instruments without sterilization or sharing of needles and syringes by HIV drug addicts
HOW HIV IS NOT TRANSMITTED
There is no risk of contracting HIV infection in daily routine activities and by casual contact with HIV positive person.
AIDS virus is not transmitted through:
· Embarrassing or kissing (social)
· Touching hand shaking or hugging
· Sharing bathroom or toilet
· Coughing, saliva or sneezing
· Eating together or sharing utensils
· Swimming pools
· Sharing clothes
· Mosquito bite, Insect bite or houseflies
· Patient caring
WHAT ARE SYMPTOMS OF AIDS
An HIV infected person initially looks normal and perfectly healthy. The symptoms of AIDS develop after few years and include: -
· Long standing, unexplained fever ( > 1 month)
· Unexplained diarrhoea (> 1 month)
· Persistent cough (> 1 month)
· Persistent unexplained fatigue and weight loss of more than 5 kg within short period
· White blotches in the mouth or on tongue
·
HOW HIV CAN BE DETECTED
You can not tell by looking at person’s face whether he or she is infected with HIV. The infected person looks perfectly healthy and feel well for years. The infection can only be detected by doing a blood test i.e. ELISA HIV antibody test. If someone is found to be positive by ELISA and confirmed by second test (done on different blood sample and by different method) the person is said to be seropositive.
SPOT TEST:
This is simple rapid test for finding out the HIV status of a person in which the result can be given to the patient within half an hour. Rarely there are chances of a false positive report and hence a positive report should be confirmed by doing ELISA test.
WESTERN BLOT (WB) TEST:
Specialized and costly confirmatory test for HIV. Done only to confirm a positive ELISA or SPOT test report. Ever since the standard of ELISA and SPOT test has improved the role of this test seems to be very little in diagnosis of HIV infection.
CD4 AND VIRAL LOAD TESTING:
Very costly tests and done only in those affording patients who are willing to start anti-HIV (antiretroviral) drugs.
It is mandatory to do pre-test and post-test counselling of all the patients before and after the test respectively.
CARE OF HIV / AIDS PATIENT
GENERAL CARE:
· Sympathetic attitude, family and public support
· Patient should be advised to take adequate rest and diet rich in proteins and vitamins
· Patient should be advised not to donate blood or organs
· Patient should be advised to use condom with any sexual partner
· As far as possible patient should avoid eating outside food
· Patient should be encouraged to give up all habits i.e. smoking, alcohol or chewing pan or tobacco
· Patient should drink boiled water
· Patient should be advised to do regular exercise or yoga
If patients follow above general care tips they can live 1-2 year longer.
SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENT:
· Early treatment of common problems like fever, cough, diarrhea etc. from family doctor
· Early detection and treatment of opportunistic infections like TB etc.
SPECIFIC ANTI-HIV TREATMENT:
Many new anti-HIV drugs which prevent the spread of the virus and can postphone various complications are now available at selected places in market and few of them are also manufactured in India e.g. AZT, 3TC, D4T, Saquinavir, ddc, nevirapine etc. But these medicines are very costly and in India 90% of HIV patients cannot even think of them. One year expenses of good comminations of these drugs and blood testing comes to around 1.5 to 2.5 lacs. These medicines can prolong the life of the patient but not cure him.
HOW CAN HIV BE PREVENTED
PRVENTION IS THE ONLY CURE FOR HIV / AIDS
Prevention is simple easy and the only answer we have got today unless we find some cure. HIV can be easily prevented by adopting simple measures such as:
SAFE SEX:
The only safe sex is ‘no sex’; all other practices like masturbation, cuddling, hugging, rubbing, sticking to one partner or using condom if one cannot avoid multiple partners are safer sex practices.
SAFE BLOOD:
Judicious use of blood and use only pretested HIV free blood or blood product.
SAFE NEEDLES:
Insist your doctors and nurses to use sterile or disposable needles and instruments.
SAFE MOTHERHOOD:
Before taking any major step in life like marriage or having child ascertain that you are HIV free.
SAFE RAZOR AND BLADE:
Never share your shaving blades with anyone and also ask your barber to use properly cleansed razor and new blade during shaving or hair cut. (Although the risk of getting infection from a saloon is minimal)

CARE OF HIV / AIDS PATIENT
GENERAL CARE:
· Sympathetic attitude, family and public support
· Patient should be advised to take adequate rest and diet rich in proteins and vitamins
· Patient should be advised not to donate blood or organs
· Patient should be advised to use condom with any sexual partner
· As far as possible patient should avoid eating outside food
· Patient should be encouraged to give up all habits i.e. smoking, alcohol or chewing pan or tobacco
· Patient should drink boiled water
· Patient should be advised to do regular exercise or yoga
If patients follow above general care tips they can live 1-2 year longer.
SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENT:
· Early treatment of common problems like fever, cough, diarrhea etc. from family doctor
· Early detection and treatment of opportunistic infections like TB etc.
SPECIFIC ANTI-HIV TREATMENT:
Many new anti-HIV drugs which prevent the spread of the virus and can postphone various complications are now available at selected places in market and few of them are also manufactured in India e.g. AZT, 3TC, D4T, Saquinavir, ddc, nevirapine etc. But these medicines are very costly and in India 90% of HIV patients cannot even think of them. One year expenses of good comminations of these drugs and blood testing comes to around 1.5 to 2.5 lacs. These medicines can prolong the life of the patient but no
CONCLUSION
Remember AIDS does not discriminate caste, creed, race, religion, educational or social status. Prevention of AIDS is our joint responsibility. Education and awareness is the only weapon in our hand. Let us accept the challenge to fight against AIDS. We must support and care for the people with HIV / AIDS with compassion and understanding.
t cure him.

Education in India: Pharmacy

2009-01-26T10:24:00.000-08:00

Education in India: Pharmacy

Looking for a Career Option as pharmacists?
This section features Pharmacy as a career option, elaborated with reference to the job profile, personality traits required, the courses and training involved, premier institutions and future prospects.
In our day-to-day life pharmacists play an important role, as they are very much into research and manufacture of drugs. As a pharmacist.Thus, pharmacy is closely associated with scientific study.
Pharmacy as a career option has always been in demand. India being a huge nation of about a billion populations, diseases both minor and major has been a curse upon the weak and the poor. In the previous centuries and almost till the middle of the 20th century killer diseases such as acute respiratory infections, diarrhoea, depression, tuberculosis, measles, anaemia etc have been affecting thousands every year. With the advancements in medical science most of these diseases have been brought under control, with the help of high powerful antibiotics and other life saving drugs. This is where pharmacy steps in to fill the void.
Pharmacists study the chemistry of drugs, their origin, procedures for drug development, their preparation, dispensing, their effects and eventual use for prevention and treatment of disease. The complexity of drug therapy and the dangers of drug abuse has brought into focus the need of pharmacists' special skills to maintain a rational approach in the realm of drug treatments.

AMRIT SINGH
Pharmacy Student
'I decided on pharmacy because I had a keen interest in chemistry and biology. Working part-time in a community pharmacy allowed me to view at first hand how rewarding pharmacy is, as it means we can help people from all walks of life using the chemical and drug expertise where there is plenty of contact with the general public.'
In future pharmacists will have more responsibility and more duties to perform, meaning we will have a bigger role to play, like doctors.

Personality Traits
Pharmacists must have a scientific bent of mind and should have interest in medicine. The academic acumen of pharmacists can range from average to superior. Pharmacists in research and industries should have excellent academic potential. An ability to work methodically, carefully and accurately is needed for work in hospitals, stores, laboratories and shop floors. Sympathetic attitude, caring mannerisms and a friendly disposition are required for dealing with patients.
Excellent communication skills are required by pharmacists engaged in marketing and in the production units of industries. Pharmacists in management positions must have effective management skills. In the retail sector, additional skills in merchandising, selling and financial management are required.
Pharmacists work in research, processing and manufacture of drugs. Biotechnological research has added a dynamic potential to the work of pharmacists. The investment in research and development is envisaged to expand the sphere of business activity, both in the country and abroad. Multinational joint venture partnerships have given a thrust to this growth, which has targeted business of almost 40,000 crores, approximately 3.8% of the market share by the turn of the century.
Courses/Training
After Class XII (PCM/B), the study of pharmacy is at the following levels – Diploma courses are of 2 years' duration, degree courses of 4 years' duration.
After graduate degree in pharmacy, M Pharma course of 2 years' duration can b undertaken.
Graduates in pharmacy can opt to do postgraduate study in biotechnology, particularly if they aspire to become research scientists.
Diploma holders can find work work as technicians.
Graduate pharmacists can opt for retail and hospital jobs.
Postgraduates and doctorates are selected for research, production, quality control and management positions.
Those with B. Pharm and above can work in production section in pharmaceutical companies, product marketing, quality control, research, etc. They are also employed by large hospitals and research centres. There is a demand for pharmacists in western countries also, and many Indians have fared well in this field abroad.
Placements And Prospects
Those opting for D. Pharm. are employed in the above organizations at a lower level, and they also find vast avenues of employment in pharmacies and medical shops, for whom it is compulsory by law to employ a pharmacist.
Pharmacists work in four areas:
Hospital pharmacist – The tasks:Procure, stock, prepare and dispense medicines, drugs and other medical accessories. Undertake responsibility for stock control, storage, placing orders, labelling and financial budgeting and account-keeping for the dispensary. The pharmacists are expected to meet patients, doctors and nurses to discuss the supply of medicines and the appropriate form of drugs for administration.
Retail pharmacists – The tasks:In medical retail stores, the pharmacist prepares and dispenses drugs on prescription to the general consumer With the growing availability of pre-packaged doses, the pharmacist monitors the drug sale on the basis of prescriptions and dosages, and gives over the counter advice on how to use prescribed drugs
In the retail sector, pharmacists run chemist's shops As medical representatives, they inform and educate the medical practitioners of the potential uses of the drug or health product and its administration along with side effects or precautions for its use. The job entails regular visits to medical practitioners, hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, health centres. There is usually a lot of touring to be done.
Industrial pharmacists – While most firms are involved in the production of preformulated preparations, a growing number of firms are developing new formulations through autonomous research work. Industrial pharmacists carry out clinical trials, where drugs are tested for safety and effectiveness work in research and development to develop new formulations the production job entails management and supervision of the production process, packaging, storage and delivery work in marketing, sales and quality control.
Research pharmacists - Research pharmacists are engaged in research activities in pharmaceutical firms, research organisations and laboratories.

For Diploma in Pharmacy
As a Pharmacist in Govt/Semi Govt/Private Hospitals.
They can start their own Medical Store.
For Bachelor in Pharmacy
As a Medical representative or a medical detailing man.
Marketing Managers or a Sales Manager.
Drug Inspectors.
Drug Controllers.
Graduate Pharmacist
Chief Pharmacist.
As Lecturers for D.Pharm and B.Pharm Colleges etc.
For Masters in Pharmacy:
As Lecturers for B.Pharm Colleges.
Basic degree for Ph.D.,
Research Assistant or Research Associate etc.
Pharmacy teachers with B.Pharma having put in 5 years of minimum teaching experience in any institution approved by AICTE are also eligible for M.Pharma course.
The prospects-
Registered pharmacists work in health centres, hospitals and medical dispensing stores, in pharmaceutical industry, in the manufacturing, analytical and research and development divisions. They also work in drug control administration as Drug Inspector, Analytical Chemist, in the Customs office experts on drugs and pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Supplies and Rehabilitation as Assistant Director of Supplies, medical representatives and executives in pharmaceutical sale divisions.

A number of multinational companies like Hoechst, E Merck and Smith Kline Beecham are collaborating with leading Indian companies as well as government labs, thus offering many job options for qualified professionals. Most large pharmaceutical firms have research divisions requiring skilled manpower. Fresh postgraduates and Ph Ds are recruited as analytical research scientists/associates or as product development research associates.
The Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) Lucknow; National Chemical Laboratory, Pune; the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad also employ researchers.
Drug and pharmaceutical firms employ graduates, postgraduates and doctorates with a background in pharmaceuticals as management trainees for their production units, operations, as well as for quality control and quality certification. With adequate experience, these people rise to senior management positions. More than 20,000 industries manufacturing drugs and pharmaceuticals exist in India, employing almost 1.5 million people.

What is Dyslexia

2009-01-19T08:51:00.000-08:00

What is Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a difficulty in learning to read, speak, or write. It is a difference in brain organization that is present at birth & results in a struggle when trying to learn, remember, or express information. It is a learning disability that alters the way the brain processes written material. The effects of the disorder vary from person to person. In fact, the only common trait among people with dyslexia is that they read at levels significantly lower than typical for people of their age and intelligence.
Experts say it occurs in up to 15% of the general population. Although dyslexia continues through life, it is very possible to learn to deal effectively with dyslexia & accomplish high levels of success.
The most universal problems are:
weak recognition of numbers, letters & words
difficulty remembering numbers & letters in sequence
poor manipulation of numbers & letters
poor spelling
To suspect a diagnosis of dyslexia, a cluster of symptoms must be evidenced - not just one symptom. Symptoms may appear different in childhood or in adolescence & adulthood.
Dyslexia can result in a severe loss of self-esteem, limited friendships, & failure in school & career.
These effects can be prevented by:
early diagnosis
special remediation using multisensory techniques
teaching of coping skills
Dyslexia Is ...
not a sign of poor intelligence
not the result of laziness or of not caring
not a disease
cannot be cured with pills or diets
not an eye problem
not outgrown

but... dyslexics can learn how to learnthe good news is that with appropriate education, understanding, & time, many dyslexics learn to read & write & to develop their special abilities & talents. Many successful people: scientists, artists, athletes & world leaders have dyslexia.
Dyslexia is difficulty with language. For people with dyslexia, intelligence is not the problem. The problem is language.
People with dyslexia may struggle with reading, spelling, understanding language they hear, or expressing themselves clearly in speaking or in writing.
An unexpected gap exists between their potential for learning and their school achievement.
Typical responses when people find out that they or someone they know is dyslexic include dismay and anxiety – like the feelings people have when they find out they have a serious disease. Dyslexia is not a disease, but it is a lifelong problem that presents challenges that need to be overcome daily. The good news is that with proper diagnosis, appropriate education, hard work and support from family, friends, teachers and others, people who are dyslexic can lead successful and productive lives.
The first step in helping a person with dyslexia is to give emotional support and understanding. That’s one reason why you’re here right now – to find out how you can give that support. And that’s why we have this website – to help you with information and support.